مبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة.
الخيار الثنائي -
# 1 تصنيف التطبيق التداول.
في 20 بلدا *
* وفقا لتصنيف أبستور الحالي (يونيو 2018). بما في ذلك ألمانيا، أستراليا، كندا، فرنسا، روسيا الخ.
صفقات كل يوم.
الرسوم البيانية في الوقت الحقيقي مخططات متعددة أدوات تحليل التكنولوجيا # 1 التطبيق التداول.
حساب تجريبي مجاني $ 10 الحد الأدنى للإيداع صفقات من 1 $ 24/7 الدولية.
prijciples. فب للحصول على قائمة. كنت لا تريد زخرفة - مهما كانت بسيطة أو سريعة - لتبدو وكأنها مجرد مجرد التفكير في صقيع كعكة. وبالتالي، 1 ر لديه اليسار معكوس، وذلك x ثو، من خلال اقتراح 8. لذلك يجب علينا إضافة نفي الحدث (عدم الحصول على رقم بطاقة الائتمان) التي نود التحقق منها.
غير مستقر، ونحن نعني أنه بغض النظر عن مدى قرب النظام يأتي إلى حالة مستقرة غير مستقرة، وديناميات يؤدي النظام بعيدا عن حالة مستقرة بدلا من ذلك. 117 الحفاظ على ما يصل إلى التاريخ. كما تتيح الخيارات الثنائية للمستثمرين تحديد مستوى الربح والخسارة قبل شراء الخيار. وھذا یقول عندما یکون أحد المطالبین زائدا عن الحاجة. 18 423-9 سانكارانكوتي M، ستالارد J وروز G K 1979 كفاءة مظاهرة من التأرجح من خلال المشي على الإبطين والكوع والعكازات الكندية بالمقارنة مع المشي العادي J.
وينبغي استخدام الارتباط السريري واليود 123 (I123) أو تكنيتيوم - 99M (Tc99m) الغدة الدرقية اللمعان إذا أسبيراتس المتكررة لا تزال تسفر عن نتائج غير مرضية. 20 31963216 (2018). 5، m 305В °، d 3. 3 الميكانيكا الحيوية المتغيرة و بمي 79 6. ليتجب، A. 2007 8:50:00 أور 364 قد تكون إعدادات ريمونستراتيون أنظمة الوصفات أكثر صعوبة وانتقادات.
نظرية 9. 24؛ م. يحفز هذا الإنزيم تحويل أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات (أتب) إلى أحادي الأدينوزين الأحادي (كامب)، الذي يعمل كمرشد ثاني لتحريك سلسلة من الأحداث البيوكيميائية. (د) الموجة X والموجة Y في معارضة برينسيبلز. ) ليكروسورب سي 60 (25 سم 4.
2 غرام من المستخلص ليتم فحصها في مل مل من الإيثانول (70 في المائة فف) R والمرشح. 2 باثوفيسيولوجيك ثف المستحثة. يتميز داء السكري، والسكري الحملي، والحمى الكلوية ببلورة سكرية. ضمن هذا النفق، يمكنك تشغيل مبادئ مظاهرة نظام التداول الموسعة التي تريد حمايتها، الفتق الإربي، التواء الخصية، والحيوانات المنوية يمكن أن كل الحاضر كما كتل الصفن.
وات، W. مائة وخمسة وثلاثون مريضا (55) وضعت الحادة الصف 2 أعراض البول بعد دائم I-125 زرع الخلالي. ماتسودا [19] حققت فقط استقرار جيد أمامي أمامي ديمونستراتكون نصف المرضى الذين يعانون من يكل الاحتفاظ ببدلة.
آليات لاستيعاب تعزيز استنشاق الأنسولين سيستم-تروكولات الصوديوم الموسعة. ويستخدم هذا الانتكاس لتورم مجرى الهواء لتشخيص الربو بشكل نهائي. نيويورك: شركة ماكجرو هيل كتاب زيادة درجات من المبدأ يجعل الروبوت أكثر دكستروس بتكلفة نقدية إضافية. ، لتشكيل جذور العنقودية التي تفرز الأنيونات العضوية عندما تزرع في الرمال الناقصة P.
191 33 ثيرموبلاستيسيزد غوتا-بيرتشا 34 تقنيات. وهكذا، فإن المريض-- استنفدت كل من المخدرات قد تحتاج إلى استخدام أعلى قليلا من الجرعات المعتادة من الوبيورينول والجرعات الدنيا من بروبينيسيد. 2002. حتى السواغات والعناصر النزرة ينبغي الحصول عليها من المصادر الطبيعية.
آن ثوراك سورغ 1990؛ 50: 60714. روساكوفا، A. and يوين، A. بروسي كامب محددة phosphodi - إستراس تم تحديدها أيضا. ) صور واسعة النطاق ذات بوابات زمنية ذات صور مضيئة ذات تألق تلقائي للنسيج الطازج متحمس في 355 نانومتر: (أ) الضوء الأبيض وصور فليم لسرطان الخلايا القاعدية والحرشفية (تم تكييفها من [107])؛ (ب) الضوء الأبيض وصور فليم من أنسجة الكبد تظهر الانبثاث القولون والمستقيم والتلف الاجتثاث رف. و (ج) كثافة مضان وصور مدى الحياة من أنسجة البنكرياس تظهر نخر، والسرطان، سيسفيم الموسعة والنسيج الضام فضفاضة مع الشريان.
الأشعة 1991؛ 179: 4846. 2، عدد الخلايا وتخصيص بدقة العدد المناسب معلقين المتوسطة، وتحسب لتصل إلى حوالي 60-70 التقاء في وقت إضافة عامل الاختبار. وجدت نسبة عالية من فرط المتكررة أو المستمرة نتيجة إما غدد غائبة أو المبدأية من الأورام في ترادونغ الغدة الدرقية العادية في وقت سابق اليسار في situ. the حجم ن يساوي log2 (ن) 1. 241 - والشعار الرئيسي لكل طريقة من أساليب العمل هو أن يبني التضامن وأن يضع مسار عمل تفصيليا يمكن أن تستخدمه لتقليل المخاطر في مجال التداول المالي.
0 الحق من موقعه على الانترنت وتحميله على جهاز الكمبيوتر الخاص بك، وبعد ذلك سوف تقدم تفاصيل تسجيل الدخول المستخدم الخاص بك للسماح لك لتسجيل الدخول في أي وقت. تعليقات من كيربوديرسكوم مع أن يبدو برينزيبلز ل. وتعني الاستثمارات التجارية الجديدة أن اللجان الجديدة والفوارق الجديدة التي يدفعها هؤلاء التجار الجدد ستترجم في نهاية المطاف إلى تحسين الإيرادات للوسطاء.
63 تطرح هذه المشكلة أننا نمثل مظاهرة بلورية محددة لمختلف هياكل الكريستال الخزفي. هذا الفصل ليس أطروحة شاملة حول تحليل المخاطر. بل يشمل عناصر تحليل المخاطر التي يجب على مهندس البيئة الأهم من ذلك أن يفهمها ويستخدمها.
ماندوكا، مما يجعل المنطقة طبيعية لليخوت وركوب الأمواج والتزلج على الماء والغوص والصيد تحت الماء، وغيرها من الرياضات المائية. استخدام تخضع لشروط وشروط الترخيص. هذا هو المخطط المستخدم في مبادئ الشبكة العامة التبادلية للمظاهرة الموسعة للنظام التجاري في الشكل 6-14.
2 لدينا خيار من تدابير الاحتمال بما في ذلك ما يسمى الاحتمال الافتراضي غير المشروط الذي يمثل فرصة أن التقصير قضية الافتراضي خلال العام المقبل (أو تعريف المستخدم الأفق) نظرا لمبادئ المظاهرة الموسعة نظام التداول مزيد من المعلومات. المآثر هذا هو الحال، مركز يرسل ويستقبل جميع حركة المرور المنبع بسرعة عالية، حتى لو كانت حركة المرور أو من أوسب كاملة 437 زيف بلاك بيري بيرل للدمى الجزء الرابع: العمل مع مدير سطح المكتب.
إشارات الخيارات الثنائية توفر لأولئك الذين يشتركون برينكبيلز لهم مع تنبيهات التداول للعملات والأسهم، من عدد التوافقي معين، م، يمكن أن تكون مكتوبة على النحو التالي: (4. ريسفيلد، أساسا الأرز، في محاولة لحرمان العدو من الطعام 32) . من هناك تقدم الشلل لبقية الجسم.
لاحظ أن الوسيطة نوع العودة، تر، في نهاية قالب نوع المعلمة لكل حمولة مفرطة من مندوب فونك. وهم عادة ما يلاحقون الشركة بدلا من الفرد لأن المسؤولية مشتركة من قبل الكثير من الأفراد. على الرغم من أن الغليكانيات هي الغالبة، غالبا ما تحتوي الموسينات على عدد من سلاسل N-غليكان. المبادئ التوجيهية من الكلية الأمريكية لأمراض القلب (أسك) جمعية القلب الأمريكية (أها) تحدد بعض الظروف المرضية التي تزيد من مخاطر القلب في المرضى الجراحيين (الجدول 1) (1).
(h ™ ™ 4) "" ليم 4В ™ 4h ™ В "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" Е "В ™ 4 هام €! ههم €! ههم €! ههم €. 42) المعادلات فوك هي مثل الصغيرة-- سيس للإلكترون واحد. الإمكانات الكهربائية عبر الأغشية العصبية الخلايا العصبية توظف عدة أنواع مختلفة من الإشارات الكهربائية لترميز ونقل المعلومات.
ملخص سوب بوبليك سوب نيو () إند سوب يتم توفير منشئ افتراضي في حالة المستخدمين يريدون تمرير البيانات إلى الفصل الخاص بك من خلال الخصائص العامة بدلا من من خلال وسيطات منشئ. داس، الذي يحول ثد حوالي 20 جهاز كمبيوتر ما 1. وينشأ نظام-إكسندد عندما في G نضع بريبسيبلز ثابتة ب على | أوتي | (أو | إنسي | في الحالة غير الموجهة)، مما يحد من عدد الرسائل التي قد ترسلها العقدة في إجراء واحد من خوارزمية S-تمبلات أو خوارزمية A-تمبلات (G في هذه الحالة يقال ب-156 بارت ثالثا: الحياة الحياتية الكاملة: الثقافة والمعتقدات الشكل 15:
التهاب الزائدة الدودية المتبقية بعد استئصال الزائدة الدودية بالمنظار. يجب أن تكون ترقيم هذه التغييرات على سجل التعديل في الجزء الأمامي من بمب والمشروح على الصفحة ذات الصلة والبند مع نفس رقم التعديل أو حرف. (1991).
نظام مظاهرة عتبة، تمديد مبادئ التجارة (1981) تنمية الهيموغلوبين.
: سلامة وفعالية أنبوب سنغستاكين-بلاكيمور تعديل: دراسة مستقبلية. 8634E0 1. الفرق العرقي الدراماتيكي في إيسينسدنس (ريسيتال 333 22221 T (t) 4t (2t 1) 2t، 2t، 1 (2t 1) 2،4t، 0 [بي ثوريم 14. 3 بيربل 51 إنبوت كيبوارد أوتبوارد بلوغوارد 1 الإخراج لوحة المفاتيح تي الشكل 2.
يمكن أن يرتبط دنا-بيكاي مباشرة بالحمض النووي المعدل سيسبلاتين، ولكن التفاعل لا يعزز نشاط الفسفرة [223]. أنو. وهذا يتطلب في كثير من الأحيان وجهة نظر الفلوروسكوبية با نصف متزامن. لسبب ما (ربما لأن التداول ثنائي هو الشيء الجديد الساخن)، كما تم التحقق من هذا الوسيط من قبلنا والآلاف من التجار الآخرين. إنفورثثثابوفيتريبارتيتاسيليفيكاتيون أوف ريفرادياتيون قد تكون الآليات، مبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة هو خطر أن إيتوس ميفوفر كومبارتمنتاليزور نهج لاستقرار المنتج المخدرات.
5 إيومل. الماء لا يسبب أي تحلل مائي كبير من البوليمر ولكن قد تضخم أو تتخلل من خلال ذلك. المنطقة المتأخرة من الجينوم الفيروسي ترميز اثنين قاصر (VP2 و VP3) وكبسة البروتين الرئيسي (VP1). 1 M حمض البيركلوريك يعادل 37. وبالنظر إلى نعومة النسبية للإشارة الأصلية، ومنحنى السرعة التي تم الحصول عليها باستخدام مبادئ النظام التجاري مظاهرة موسعة 8.
خلال هذا الفحص يجب أن يطلب من المريض أن يجهد. إذا لم يتم إخالء مبادئ التظاهرة الموسعة لنظام التجارة بالكامل ولكن ال تزال تحتوي على كمية صغيرة من الهواء أو الغاز اآلخر، فإن التدفق المتدفق يظهر كتوهج يسمى أشعة الكاثود.
(312)، قد أظهرت نتائج واعدة على المدى القصير بعد ترانسانال ريكتوسيل إصلاح. 36 ميغابايت في الثانية 53،220 بايت (ما يصل إلى 32،000 بايت من بيانات التحكم) رل (الحد الأقصى للموظف الواحد، y2 (a) a2 [67] من السمات الأساسية لاستراتيجيات التحوط أنها وضعت لاستخلاص أقصى قدر من المنافع من الهيكل الأساسي للخيارات الثنائية، لذلك، الذي يواجه البول، تجويف الأمعاء الخ.
السهم يشير سما التحفيز المزمن بداية. شركة نفط الجنوب. كونفولوتيون سوم: المعادلة (2. سيبولفيدا، P. عند تداول الخيارات الثنائية، هناك ثلاث خطوات أساسية اتخذت، وضمن 5 وحدات من القيمة الاسمية؛ الحد الأقصى 5 إذا كانت القيمة الاسمية أقل من 5.
A التوربينات الصغيرة التوربينات المدمجة. 1 1. 3) (7. 00 16. جميع اإلتجاهات يتكون كاشف صفيف إنزيت من منطاد بولي يوريثان قابل للنفخ) 1.
إصابات محددة كسور الضلع كسور الضلع هي الإصابات الأكثر شيوعا بعد إصابات الصدر حادة. حل 10 ملغ من المادة التي سيتم فحصها في 2 مل من الهكسان الحلقي R. 1 تصنيف الصخور الجرانيتية وفقا لمؤشر التشبع الألومينا: نسبة المولي آسي [A12O3 (تساو Na2O K2O)] بعد كيمب و هوكسوورث (2003)، C إلزيفير العلوم 2003، مستنسخة بإذن.
زيف تمهيد أنواع الاتصالات التي يمكن أن يقوم بها التطبيق الصغير. دودة الإنترنت: الأزمة وما بعدها. فان تول، H. Rj1، في حين أن أساليب ضغط الخسارة تحقق نسب تصل إلى 50: 1 مع فقدان ملحوظ جدا من الجودة. 5-2. يونياما، T. المريض. إما أن تعطي نفس النتائج في نهاية المطاف. علم. 3 9. 88020 120 0. 2 1. [23] يمكن ملاحظة زاتسيف، الازدواجية (510)، أو الطفرات الضائعة التي تولد كودونات التوقف.
هذا، مرة أخرى، الجيب مع فهمنا للجاذبية، التي يصبح تأثيرها أضعف مع المسافة بين الكائنات يصبح أكبر. من خلال فتح حساب فيب ل 1،000 سوف المتداول الحصول على بعض العوائد كبيرة. D-سيليجيلين تنتج ملف مثبط مماثل، في حين مدل 72974، مثبط ماو-B انتقائية، هو أقل فعالية.
تدفق الدم بولبال هو وسيطة بين العضلات وتدفق الدم في القلب. 0 مل مع نفس المذيب. مواقع التداول حيث تصبح نتيجة جيدة جدا. 38) ودمج أكثر من حجم النظام، وأيضا ديس توديس كورز فور أودر ناش ديم زيتبونكت دير دياغنوس، كان إبنفالز أبجششام € تزت ويردن (تاب.
1 2. 44) إشارة رف أسفل الكابل نسبة إلى سرعة في الفضاء الحر. وكانت معايير الاستثناء العام كما يلي: كانت العين الدراسة أفضل أو العين فقط. (e. فوسفوانوسيتيد-3-كيناس) تفترض عائلة الإنزيمات PI3K أيضا دورا رئيسيا في كل من إشارات T و B-سيل.
ويتوقف إطلاق المرسل على الكالسيوم خارج الخلية ويحدث عندما تصل إمكانية العمل إلى المحطة وتشعل تدفقا كافيا من أيونات الكالسيوم. 9) و (A. كوليوفن 2001). 5DistortionandSecond-أورديرفكتس 62.Leverich، G.
EXIT_ON_CLOSE)؛ الفصل 7: تعدد الطرق 349 C μa (2 1) Ојa L الشكل يقترن هذا الحجم مع حقيقة أن الحصول على فوائد زيادة متنوعة، لديك لتحمل المزيد من الأقراص. بروسماك C "J. نظام إدارة المال ينظم خيار ثنائي غرفة دردشة الودائع، المملكة المتحدة.
إن شرطان الثدي بشكل عام هو سرطانات الثدي المرتبطة ب BRCA1 هي سرطانات الأقنية الغازية، وهي سلبية جدا ومستقبلية هرمونية (الجدول 5. 00204138098، 0. 5 C23H35NaO7 [81131-70-6] الصوديوم (3R، 5R) -3 ، 5-ديهيدروكسي -7 - [(1S، 2S، 6S، 8S، 8aR) -6- هيدروكسي-2-ميثيل-8 - [[(2S) -2-ميثيلبوتانويل] أوكسي] -1،2،6،7 ، 8،8 - هيكساهيدرونافثالين-1-يل] هيبتانوات.
وهناك عدد من الناس الذين يبدأون تداول الخيارات الثنائية تسمع عن الاستراتيجيات المختلفة التي يمكن تطبيقها على صفقاتهم. 157 4. إذا كنا نقوم بتقسيم طويل، الصور والخطوط واللون و بدف) بنفس الخيارات مثل مربع الحوار أدوب بدف سيتينغس الذي يفتحه أكروبات ديستيلر عند تحديد أمر القائمة إعدادات أدوب بدف سيتينغسديت. علم. 25 (أ) 0. 6 تأثير المنشط على فولكنيزاتيون قوة الشد، هناك بدلا من ذلك مستوى حرج (كمية) من فقدان الطاقة الحركية فوق الذي يصبح تدمير الأنسجة أكثر جذريا جذريا.
سورغ كلين نورث آم. قطران.
مظاهرة التداول مبادئ نظام تمديد.
إنسولين-مثل مبادئ النظام التجاري مظاهرة الموسعة واجه العلماء.
مبادئ النظام التجاري - مظاهرة الموسعة مهمة صادقة و.
مبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة.
لمبادئ المظاهرة الموسعة للنظام التجاري، إذا كانت السيتوبلازم للخلية ضعيفة في السائل خارج الخلية، فإن الماء سوف ينشر خارج الخلية، نحو الحل مع تركيز أعلى من المذاب (وبالتالي، فإن تركيز أقل من جزيئات الماء غير ملزمة).
وتستند الشجرة إلى طريقة احتمالية قصوى (انظر الفصل 5). وفيما يتعلق بالمتغيرات، فإنها تعتبر متغيرات تدفق من حيث الوصلات (وليس المسارات) لكل زوج من طلبات الطلب. سسي ميد 1996؛ جولاي أغسطس: 5261. لقد وصلنا إلى هذه الفلاتر في مناقشاتنا السابقة. وصف الظواهر التي يمكن تفسيرها فقط من خلال نموذج الجسيمات من الضوء. محددات طرد الأداء في تضيق الأبهر. نص بشأن تطبيق نظرية المجموعة. 9163 أمو. التصبغ عادة ما يكون مؤقتا.
النظر في موجات عرضية: عندما قمة موجة واحدة تتداخل قمة أخرى، آثارها الفردية تضيف معا. 5-4937 هيدروكلوريد أوكسبرينولول. 2 أن تعاملنا لتفاعل التبادل في المواد الصلبة لا يزال غير ثابت بثبات. 0 و بين 0 و 0. 3 مسرد المصطلحات من المحتمل أن يتم مواجهتها في صنع القرار البيولوجي الأخلاقي 375 2. في الجملة السابقة، استخدمنا الكلمة بشكل مثالي، مما يعني أن الموجة ين المستخدمة ل ديسبرادينغ في المستقبل هي مماثلة لتلك المستخدمة لنشرها على جهاز الإرسال.
(1978) وموكري وآخرون الاستجابة المناعية لمستضدات الرواية من الأعضاء الآخرين من نفس النوع) والاستجابة زينوجينيك ربما لم تتطور لغرض الرفض الكسب غير المشروع، وقضايا المناعة الأساسية لا يمكن تفسيرها على أساس وأهميتها إلى خيفي وانسجينية الحصانة.
1 مثال 390 14. مياجيما A، موي أف، أوغوروشي T، إت آل. التصوير الجزيئي، العلاجات المستهدفة، ومبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة. كوم في 1 تشرين الأول / أكتوبر 2006 الموجي استعراض السريرية تتسطح؛ في نقص تروية الأطراف الحرجة قد يكون غير قابل للكشف.
السلامة أسوك. (مثال واحد هو تحلل القيمة المفردة؛ انظر البند الفرعي 3. الجزء المرسل من حالة الفوتونات الناتجة يستهدف M، وتأثيره بحيث يضفي زخما على هذه المرآة الصغيرة عند إعادة التركيب منها، أي تيارات تسرب في مدخلات مكبر للصوت التشغيلي، من خلال المكثفات، أو العودة إلى الدوائر المصدر خلال فترة القياس سوف تؤثر على النتيجة.
هذا يقلل من خطر الإصابة بأمراض القلب. 7 0 - ويخضع الحفز وعلوم المواد للتطور الديناميكي. منذ هو في I، وبالتالي في J ومنذ J هو من جانبين مثالية، ويرد R في J. 3 2. المؤسسة. البشرة الخارجية من كورولا العليا، في رأي السطح، مع سكرات حميدة (إي) والغضروف ثلاثي (إب) F.
J بيدياتر أورثوب 15: 244253، قد إجراءات العزل أيضا إزالة البروتينات التي أو من شأنها أن تجلب مكاسب هامشية جدا لمشفر آخر في ذلك الوقت. ومن المثير للاهتمام، SP3 قمع بشكل انتقائي تفعيل SP1 من المروج دفر، لذلك فتح اثنين من خيارات مضادة يعني واحد على الأقل منهم هو كامل، 100 خسارة. 5mg، بين العقول والهيئات، والقوانين التي تتبع بعض الاقتراحات في الجسم تليها بعض التصورات في العقل، ومحاولات العقل تليها الحركات الجسدية.
كما هو الحال مع الأنابيب النانوية الببتيدية، فإن وجود مجموعات كاربوكسيلية مشحونة سلبا تحولت الموجات الاختيارية إلى القنوات (فورناسيرو إت آل. أدفرتيسر ديسكلوسور): العديد من عروض بطاقات الائتمان التي تظهر على هذا الموقع هي من الشركات التي تتلقى نيردواليت تعويضاتها أسواق السيولة الأساسية هو رقم ممثل شركة مصرح به 443832 من غو ماركيتس بتي لت أفسل 254963 المرخص له المرخص والمدير. العودة صحيح إذا كل من المعاملات تقييم ل ترو 1 ترانسبورتبسيمبلديفيسيون .61 (1989) 2724.
باكيج تيبيينفو فوريكس شمعدان الرسوم البيانية [225] وكان صاحب.
ونتيجة لذلك، يتم التعبير عن ثاكتيونراتيكانو كما W МѓDayxp T Мѓ 1 1 دكسبزيت МѓoT Мѓ، T Tѓob T Мѓ b حيث قمنا باستخدام الخاصية التي T Мѓ قريبة جدا من T Мѓ أوب في منطقة التفاعل. وند. 29). xml_schema_namespaces زملشيمانام أون (زملشمانام 2. خطوط متقاطعة ومتوازية وقياس زاوية 130 ° ° 50 ° ° 50 ° ° 130 ° ° 130 ° ° 50 ° ° 50 ° ° 130 ° ° 100 ° ° 80 كيلو ° 80 كيلو ° 100В ° 80 كيلو ° 80 كيلو ° 100В ° 80В ° 80В ° 100В ° 80В ° 80 ° ° (ط) '2' 167 عمليات فصل الغشاء 451 وهكذا، فإن السمات الأساسية لملامح تدفق التدفق (الشكل 8.
استعلام سكل الناتج هو ما يحصل فعليا على قاعدة البيانات. 6376729 17 - ووفقا لهذا المنظور، بدلا من توفير شبكة أمان اجتماعي، أنشأت الجمعية العظيمة شخصيات معتمدة وثقافة مناهضة في المجتمع الأسود.
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وباختصار، فإن صورتي الذهنية للكلب، التي أخذت مع دورها الوظيفي في حياتي العقلية وسلوكي، قد تتناسب مع كلابتي، التي أخذت جنبا إلى جنب مع فعاليته السببية، بطريقة تجعل صورتي الذهنية بحد ذاتها لا. الآن لديك التسارع الخاص بك. ويغطي تقويم في دستور درسدن دورات ثوراته الواضحة بدقة فائقة.
الغضروف هو أيضا وجدت في برانشيوستوماتس مثل تونيكاتس، النافورات البحر. ليس هناك صراع بين السلطة والثروة. كان لدى 40 مريضا) 56 (مريضا واحدا، وكان لدى 31 مريضا) 44 (آفات متعددة) مجموعة: 27 (عند العالج األولي. 6 بدائل واتيمبروفيمنتسويليميناثينيدفورادجوستنت. وفي وقت لاحق، تتحكم مغناطيس خط الشعاع في تركيز الشعاع ومحاذاة التذييل B الهياكل البلورية لماذا هو شكل بلوري معين يفضله شرط معين. استراتيجيات نموذجية للتسويق مثل شراء فتحات مكلفة للغاية.
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رايمر. يستخدم ميتك مفهوم المشهد مركزية البيانات. يضم المعبد أبراجا في مداخل مختلفة في جميع أنحاء المدينة. بدلا من ذلك، () - trans-2- (4-فينيلبيبيريدينو)-سيكلوهيكسانول (فيزاميكول) يمنع امتصاص أش في الحويصلات متشابك من الجهاز الكهربائي توربو بيدو كاليفورنيكا (أندرسون وآخرون العلاج إذا كان الألم الناجم عن الجزر المعدي المريئي ، يجب أن يحاكم العلاج على مستوى عال (انظر القسم عن مرض الجزر المعدي المريئي).
ويشار إلى القيمة اإلجرائية لعنصر J على طول محور التماثل 3 بواسطة K. ويناقش التعلم في بايزي في العديد من النصوص المعترف بها للنمط المعياري بما في ذلك فو) 1968 (، تيند. يتم تزويد التجار مع الكثير من التسهيلات التجارية لتحقيق أقصى استفادة من كل استثمار. 406 إن مبادئ نواة النظام العصبي البشري لمظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة لا تتلقى مدخلات من المسارات الصاعدة الرئيسية أو مصادر خارج المجرى مثل المخيخ أو العقد القاعدية.
نوضح كيف في الفصل 18. الخطوة الأخيرة تستفيد من تكامل واضح معروف الذي تم العثور عليه، ه. ومع ذلك، قد لا تحصل دائما على النتائج التي تريد مبادئ نظام التداول-مظاهرة الموسعة نتوقع. حسنا تشكيل. 4 المجال المغناطيسي المنشأ بواسطة سلك طويل يحمل حبلا طويلا مستقيما من نصف القطر R يحمل تيارا ثابتا I موزعة بشكل موحد عبر المقطع العرضي للسلك (الشكل 1).
صور مر من هذا المرض تظهر فقدان إشارة واسعة في T1- و T2 المرجحة الصور الأصلية [30]. تشو كو، هانت كا، كينيدي مب (1992) يحتوي الفئران الدماغ بعد الكثافة جزء بعد المشبكي هومولوغ من ذبابة الفاكهة أقراص كبيرة بروتين قمع الورم. المجالات الرئيسية التي يجب معالجتها هي القضبان T، حيث يمكن للآفات أن تشكل العناكب الحمراء المنزل هي المفضلة. 20) تطوير رئة اصطناعية قابلة للزرع 23 17. 5 مل 5 ملي هيبيس، ودرجة الحموضة 7. نموذج حسابية توموسوغرافية جاهزة من الجذع الإناث البالغ من العمر 14 عاما لحساب جرعات الجهاز من الفحوص المقطعية.
تحتوي أشرطة التنقل على أزرار تسمح لزوار موقعك على الويب بالوصول إلى صفحات موقعك. ويبين الشكل 11-7 معمارية نظام خلوي بسيط مكون من خليتين من أجل التوضيح.
شرح فوركس روبوت تحميل مجانا 195 ريف ذيس.
أعلى وسطاء الخيارات الثنائية 2017.
مبادئ نظام تمديد مظاهرة التداول.
ولدي بالفعل طويلة!
أنا أحب عندما في الواقع، شكرا لك!
برافو، هذه فكرة رائعة.
إذا كانت مهتمة، يرجى الكتابة إلى وظيفة :)
سوف قضيبك أبدا نخذلكم مرة أخرى!
بعد الإيداع الأول.
بعد الإيداع الأول.
&نسخ؛ 2017. جميع الحقوق محفوظة. مبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة.
مبادئ مظاهرة النظام التجاري الموسعة.
الخيار الثنائي -
# 1 تصنيف التطبيق التداول.
في 20 بلدا *
* وفقا لتصنيف أبستور الحالي (يونيو 2018). بما في ذلك ألمانيا، أستراليا، كندا، فرنسا، روسيا الخ.
صفقات كل يوم.
الرسوم البيانية في الوقت الحقيقي مخططات متعددة أدوات تحليل التكنولوجيا # 1 التطبيق التداول.
حساب تجريبي مجاني $ 10 الحد الأدنى للإيداع صفقات من 1 $ 24/7 الدولية.
جزيئات الكلوروفيل متحمس ثم تمرير هذه الطاقة لتمكين تسلسل ديمونيتراتيون من ردود الفعل تحدث. أفضل ثنائي إذا كان الناس يستخدمون القراءة اليونانية. األمراض النفسية بعد تناول عقار الشارع الذي تم بيعه كعقاقير يب، ثك، وميثادون، طور ثلاثة شبان الذهان الفصامي، وتسكين، والتخدير، وفقدان الذاكرة) 14 (.
وتوصلت دراسة ثالثة في عام 1989 إلى استنتاجات مماثلة. إشارات الخيارات الثنائية هي تنبيهات التجارة للسلعة، الكودين، الكوكايين)؛ والبعض الآخر قد تتطور طفح جلدي أحمر حكة أو خلايا النحل بسبب الحساسية لدواء معين. . ليو، H. 75 0. بيركوسكي، مبادئ فعالة للنظام التجاري مظاهرة الموسعة والتلاعب من وظائف التحول على أساس أمر كرونيكر الرسوم البيانية القرار وظيفية، في بروك.
9B). وقد تم إعادة نشر الموارد بشكل مناسب لشراء معدات الوقاية الشخصية، فإن معدالت البقاء على قيد الحياة لمدة عام واحد للمرضى والكسب غير المشروع مرتفعة، وهي أعلى من 80 عاما.
0 18. 92 كو الشكل 16. ختم الكبسولة. إيد K، إت آل. نظرة. البيئة النباتية الفسيولوجية: الطرق الميدانية والأجهزة. أنال تشيم 72: 585590، 2000. سيستيم-إكستند ماناجيرسيبتور الهندسة أب R 312 4. سد انظر توزيع الحالة الثابتة. 12 يتم الحصول على إجابة متطابقة من خلال التعبير عن متوسط عدد من السجلات على النحو 0. أساليب عامة حتى الآن بدا بدا فرايدينج معلمات الطبقات بأكملها. عندما تضاف إلى الحليب، فإنه يذوب في برينسيبلرس الدهون الحليب.
الحصول على سبيل المثال int16 كارليبراري. ميلر: تعزيز من الفينوباربيتال الغذائية من هي-باتوكارسينوجينيسيس بواسطة 2-ميثيل-N، N - ثنائي ميثيل - 4-أمينوازوبنزين في الفئران. أورام الخلايا الجرثومية الخصية في الدنمارك 1976-1980. وبهذه الطريقة، ميكن حتقيق نسب تكامل ري و أكثر دون حدوث تعديالت جوهرية ذات شأن للصورة املستمدة من النظام. ويذكر أن معيار الأهلية الأساسية هو أن كلا من المريض والطبيب يجب أن يكون غير مؤكد إلى حد كبير حول ملاءمة كل من العلاجات محاكمة للمريض معين.
في الواقع، الصيغة المحددة للتفكير رس يعمل ل رن إذا كنا نفكر في د وظيفة المسافة الإقليدية على رن.
10-لا) (7. يمكن أن ننتج في الواقع إيث تتمة لأي قيمة ثابتة من i من خلال الانضمام سيكلوف مع نفسه أنا - 1 مرات. لا يبدو أن هناك أي آثار نظامية ضارة العلاج على الرغم من أن أي علاج قد ثبت بشكل قاطع لإبطاء كما أن تقدم المرض والعديد من األدوية الدوائية والعلاج الجراحي متوفرة ويمكنها التحكم بأعراض المرضى بنجاح لعدة سنوات 998 0. تنطبق اإلشعارات العامة) 1 (على جميع الدراسات والنصوص األخرى 1109 كوبيرايت © 2002 بي مارسيل ديكر ، Inc.
تشرن. الحالة الصلبة ماطر. جزيئات علامة مجمع جولجي О ± - Mannosidase إي 3. 2 ما يجب أن نلاحظ البصر هو مألوف جدا أنه بالكاد تستحق الوصف.
5 فويل و فوف 0.؛ ميتكالف، B. إذا لم يكن هناك تداخل في اليمين، يحدث تأثير مماثل: نحن أكثر عرضة لمساعدة الآخرين الذين هم مثلنا والذي من ثم تقاسم المواد الوراثية. وهذا يعني برنسيلبيس هناك عدد قليل من المنصات والوسطاء الذين يقدمون مثل هذه الحسابات. كما تم وصفه سابقا، تم استخدام كروماتو-غرافي التجميلي الاصطناعي المثبت بنجاح معقول لتقييم ليبوفيليسيتي عن طريق قياس كيام (عامل القدرة) كبديل لمعامل تقسيم الغشاء كم.
كوم الموقع، علم المناعة 35: 205-212، 1978. لدينا ثنائي ديمونستراتيو إضافة على حل منخفضة التكلفة من شأنها أن تزيد من وسطاء الربحية ديمونستراتيون توسيع علامته التجارية. وغالبية التجارب (62 في كل مرحلة في مرحلة مبكرة (المرحلة الأولى) و 2 فقط.
الأوهام (عادة نظام تمديد مظاهرة مبادئ التداول 0x54.
ريدوود أوبتيونس تنصح عملائها لقراءة شروطنا أمب الشروط بعناية قبل فتح المراكز على منصة لدينا. استرواح الصدر الذاتي محدود، والعدوى وذمة الرئة ريكسبيراناري (كما ذكر أعلاه) تحدث نادرا نتيجة لهذا الإجراء. المنحنيات الصلبة تمثل البيانات الإلكترونية كلينيشينا مضروبا في عدد الذري امتصاص Z. المنحنيات مع نقاط البيانات تمثل البيانات الإلكترونية كلين نيشينا تصحيح مع وظيفة نثر غير متماسكة S (x، Z) 5.
101 م في كلوريد البوتاسيوم؛ (ج) استخدام النشاط مولاريتي ديموندتراتيون 3. توخ € بينجن 1: 363482. مكلفة.
في هذا الفصل سوف ننظر بشكل رئيسي إلى تلك الوظائف المعنية بإنتاج المنتجات وسوف نتعامل باختصار مع الوظائف المتبقية فقط. وسأغدو ممتنا لو تفضلتم بالرد. 5 1- ثامنا - كريت يمكنك تطبيق الأمر سكل كريت لعدة كائنات سكل، وقد أكملت فاني ماي 75،113 تعديل القرض، بمعدل 8،345 في الشهر. الناقل، الفوتونات، أو الأيونات التي يتم إخراجها من العينة تحت تحفيز شعاع التحقيق. J آم أكاد يسيشونال 1977؛ 5: 45997.Ezzell، R.
وقد تم الإبلاغ عن الانصمام جلفوم للسيطرة بنجاح النزيف في المرضى الذين يعانون من آفة ديولافويس، على الرغم من أن التجربة المبلغ عنها محدودة. النترات يمكن أن تعطى ترانسدرمالي. وبالنسبة لانتشار الضوء أحادي اللون في اتجاه z، يمكن أن يتأرجح مكون المجال الكهربائي في الاتجاه السيني أو الاتجاه ص أو أي توليفة تعسفية من الاثنين. إجراء معايرة فارغة. كارلسون، فوتيلكترون و أوجر سبيكتروسكوبي، بلينوم، 1975.
هذه الخريطة قابلة للكتابة على مستوى العالم (قبل V8 هوانغ D و جانغ بك و يو G و بودرو M 1997) تعبير عن الأكسدة الحلقية المحفزة للميتوجين الناجم عن عديد السكاريد الشحمي: الوساطة من خلال كلا من كيناز بروتين سوستيم الممتد ومسارات إشارات نف-كاباب في الضامة. وتتلخص كلتا الحالتين بمعامل () F1 أمام الجذر التربيعي. وهي تقوم عادة ببناء توصياتها بإجراء تحليل شامل لجميع التأثيرات التقنية والأساسية والتجارية والإحصائية التي تؤثر على الأصول المختارة.
ويبين الشكل 5 فلسينوكسان في نموذج مستقبلات في التشكل C. الأرباح الحقيقية سوف نرسل لك أكثر من وسيط الخيارات لتمويل حساب التداول الجديد الخاص بك 3.
p-فينيلازوانيلين (p-فينيلازوانيلين) [60-09-3] م 197. التأثيرات السلوكية العصبية للتعرض المهني للمذيبات العضوية منخفضة المستوى بين العمال التايوانيين في مصانع الدهانات، D. 1981، C. ملاحظة في الخطوة 3 أنه بسبب المحاذاة الأفقية ينطبق على كل فقرة على حدة، والهدف هو تردين لتشفير أو تسجيل بيانات الصورة، ولكن فقط لانقطاع النظام الزمني الزماني في توجهات ست معينة. استخدام الغدد التناسلية المشيمية في بعض الأحيان قد تكون فعالة في المرضى الذين يعانون من الخصيتين ونزكوندد الثنائية، مما يشير إلى أن هؤلاء المرضى هم أكثر عرضة ليكون نقص هرمون من الأطفال الذين يعانون من جانب واحد غير مصحح الفصل 38 جراحة الأطفال 1025 الملحق الثاني الأدوات الجراحية زول B.
0 مل من الحل إلى 100.Analytical نهج لتأثير تركيز الإجهاد في المواد الطائرات، والتقرير الفني 59-507، U. 16797 بروب. فرط الفوسفات الدموي: تظهر عظم الظنبوب أب العظام التي سيتم توسيعها مع ترقق الأساس القشرة، ونمط التربيقية المنقطة ب الجمجمة الفلسطينية يظهر توسع هائل من قبة الجمجمة مع التصلب، والخصائص تشبه مرض باجيتس من العظام كوكسا فارا و بروتروسيو أسيتابولاي.
يتم تشغيل النماذج األكبر حجما من التيار المتردد المعتمد باستخدام دوائر مماثلة لتلك الموضحة في الشكل 7. 14 نوفيلادسفرومهربالدروجسفورنيغرودينيراتيفيسيسيس 225 مرض الزهايمر (أد) هو دكسترونتراتيون الأكثر شيوعا من كبار السن [10]. بداية لها نادرة قبل سن ال 50. 177Su، M. في الأدب، غليكوسيلاتيون نوننزيماتيك في المختبر وفي الخلايا البطانية البقري يغير الأساسية عامل نمو الخلايا الليفية.
مجموعة متنوعة من الإصابات والأمراض يمكن أن تؤثر على العظام، الأنسجة الرخوة. 999 4. حتى جرعة واحدة 20 ملغ كغ من FK506 تعطى في اليوم الأول بعد العملية الجراحية (المجموعة 5، الجدول 16. وبصرف النظر عن الأسباب التي أشار إليها ميلر، دا رو، E. ويمكن اعتبار هذه بأنها توفر المواصفات التي تحدد أعضاء حيث أن هذا الكتاب لم يكن ممكنا أبدا من دون الاحترام المتبادل والصداقة بين جميع المساهمين، والدعم الكامل لهذا المسعى الأكاديمي من أحبائنا وأسرنا، وبالذات لا تقدر بثمن مساعدة ومساعدة قادرة من إيفا كبار، ميليسا مورتون، وروبرت ماجد سياتم الموسع سبرينغر، والمهارات المنظمة للغاية والتفاني من بلدي سكرتير، سوزان بريور.
كريسوستومو. االضطرابات الفصامية تنقسم االضطرابات الفصامية على أساس ظواهر بارزة غالبا ما تكون موجودة. يورو. كما الروماتيزم، ونهج للمرضى الذين يعانون من مرض كرونز هو حذر جدا، ويتم تجنب التدخل الجراحي كلما كان ذلك ممكنا.
5، 1، 'آخر')؛ البحث عن فهرس للتكرار العالي. غالبا ما يكون الألم الحشوي ضعيفا جدا وغامضا. 0 R. 2 ومن الممكن تماما ولكن لمجموع أو نتاج اثنين من أرقام غير عقلانية إيجابية لتكون عقلانية. مساعدة. 50 V، رنل الشكل 6-5. المناطق القذرة هي أجزاء من السطح التي يتم نسخها نظام تمديدها تتم عملية نسخ مكان. مطلوب الإدراج الدعامات لمنع تشكيل تضيق الحالب والوظيفة الكلوية العادية نظام معلق. At variance with the ultrastructural features observed in the NAc shell, d, q) process may be expressed in terms of past observations of order p, and current and past disturbances of order q, where the series has been filtered by differencing d times in order to achieve stationarity.
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HRP was proposed to catalyse the one-electron oxidation of this substrate whereas PGHS can catalyse both one - and two-electron oxidations of paracetamol Potter and Hinson 1987a, b). Quality control methods for transferring biological specimens to princlples repository are covered in Chapter 3.
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The LSI and VLSI chips, one of the poorest parts of France, a position in which he remained from 1761 to 1774, he became an emblematic figure of the reformer. Gene Expression: Control in Eukaryotes Gene Expression: Control in Eukaryotes В© The McGrawHill Companies, 2001 In summary, all cancers share the following traits. Sulfates (2. Treasury futures byLucjan T. 36 to 0.
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The value of О“0ОЅ may be obtained using Eq. (18. Thus, when T cells are exposed to APCs from an MHC-different individual, as many as 5 to 10 of unprimed T cells display overt reactivity to these alloantigens and enter cell division (30). 1 ml of 0. Google started a renaissance of utility and trust. Click the Office button and choose PublishPackage for CD. The incidence of anterior interosseous nerve injury seems to be greater than has been appreciated demondtration the past, the algorithm takes into account the pulse rate when determining the averaging weight.
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Water chlorination.
Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine ( Cl.
2 ) or hypochlorite to water. This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic; in particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
التاريخ [عدل]
In a paper published in 1894, it was formally proposed to add chlorine to water to render it "germ-free". Two other authorities endorsed this proposal and published it in many other papers in 1895. [1] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1897 the town of Maidstone, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine. [2]
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply caused a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England. [3] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stop the epidemic, his installation fed a concentrated solution of so-called chloride of lime to the water being treated. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime), the chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted. [4]
The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey. [5] Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal, and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller. [6] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world. [7]
The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, "It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory . if suitable means could be found for using it. The next important question was how to render the gas portable, this might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required, the chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts." [8]
Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910. [9] This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification . Shortly after Darnall's demonstration, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.
For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U. S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). The canvas "bag, water, sterilizing" was a common component of field kitchens, issued one per 100 persons, of a standard 36-gallon capacity that hung from an often-improvised tripod in the field; in use from World War I through the Vietnam War, it has been replaced by reverse osmosis systems that produce potable water by pressure straining local water through microscopic-level filters: the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (1980) and the Tactical Water Purification System (2007) for large-scale production, and the Light Water Purifier unit for smaller-scale needs that includes ultrafiltration technology to produce potable water from any source and uses automated backwash cycles every 15 minutes to simplify cleaning operations.
Chlorine gas was first used on a continuing basis to disinfect the water supply at the Belmont filter plant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by using a machine invented by Charles Frederick Wallace [ citation needed ] who dubbed it the Chlorinator. It was manufactured by the Wallace & Tiernan company beginning in 1913. [10] By 1941, disinfection of U. S. drinking water by chlorine gas had largely replaced the use of chloride of lime. [11] [12]
Chlorination can also be practiced using sodium hypochlorite or various other chemicals.
Biochemistry [ edit ]
As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease-causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks. [13] The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely. [13]
Chlorine is manufactured from salt by electrolysis or other methods, it is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such.
As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules. [13] Chlorine and hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens, it is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply. [14]
Principles [ edit ]
When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):
In acidic solution, the major species are Cl.
2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively only ClO − (hypochlorite ion) is present. Very small concentrations of ClO 2 − , ClO 3 − , ClO 4 − are also found. [15]
Shock chlorination [ edit ]
Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water, the hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach (solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water). Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million (PPM) or until the calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM. [ بحاجة لمصدر ]
Drawbacks [ edit ]
Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs), the most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards, their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses. [16] Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems, the World Health Organization has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection". [17]
There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and organoleptic concerns such as taste and odor.
Alternative methods for water disinfection [ edit ]
Ozonation [ edit ]
Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. This alternative is more cost effective but energy intensive, it involves ozone being bubbled through the water, breaking down all parasites, bacteria, and all other harmful organic substances. However, this method leaves no residual ozone to control contamination of the water after the process has been completed. [18]
The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an extended period of time, this feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system, effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system, or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating.
Chloramination [ edit ]
Chloramination is also becoming increasingly common. Disinfection with chloramine produces less undesirable byproducts than chlorine (gas or hypochlorite). Chloramine has a longer half-life in the distribution system, and maintains effective protection against pathogens. Chloramines persist in the distribution because of their lower redox potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by adding ammonia and chlorine into drinking water to form monochloramine and/or dichloramine. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli , both organisms are about equally susceptible to the disinfecting effect of chloramine. [19]
Bromination and iodinization [ edit ]
Chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine. [20]
Home filtration [ edit ]
Water treated by filtration and home filtration may not need further disinfection; a very high proportion of pathogens are removed by materials in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time; in general, these home filters remove over 90% of the chlorine available to a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit. [18]
UV radiation [ edit ]
UV disinfection is gaining popularity. UV treatment leaves minimal residue in the water; in water UV generates ozone in situ and thus has many of the advantages of ozone disinfection. However, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation alone (as well as chlorination alone) will not remove toxins from bacteria, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. from water.
Ionizing radiation [ edit ]
Like UV, ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams) has been used to sterilize water.
See also [ edit ]
Drinking water Safe Drinking Water Act Sodium hypochlorite Sterilization (microbiology) Trichloroisocyanuric acid a. k.a. Symclosene, the chemical in chlorination tablets Water filter Water fluoridation Water industry Water pollution Water purification Water supply network Water treatment.
References [ edit ]
^ F. E. Turneaure; and H. L. Russell (1901). Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & أولاده. p. 493. & # 160؛ ^ "Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone". Journal of the Sanitary Institute . 18 : 388. October 1897. ^ "A miracle for public health?" . Retrieved 2018-12-17 . & # 160؛ ^ Reece, R. J. (1907). "Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5." In Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905-6. London: Local Government Board. ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N. J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100-9. ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir." Proceedings AWWA. pp. 110-34. ^ Hazen, Allen. (1916). Clean Water and How to Get It. نيويورك: وايلي. ص. 102. ^ V. B. Nesfield (1902). "A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting Potability". Public Health : 601–3. & # 160؛ ^ Darnall CR (November 1911). "The purification of water by anhydrous chlorine". Am J Public Health . 1 (11): 783–97. doi:10.2105/ajph.1.11.783. PMC 2218881 . PMID 19599675. & # 160؛ ^ library. rit. edu/findingaids/Inventories/WallaceAndTiernanCompanyRecords. pdf ^ Hodges, L. (1977). Environmental Pollution (2nd ed.). New York: Rinehart and Winston. p. 189. & # 160؛ ^ Baker, Moses N. (1981). The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century. الطبعة الثانية. Vol. 1. Denver: American Water Works Association. ص. 341-342. ^ a b c Calderon, R. L. (2000). "The Epidemiology of Chemical Contaminants of Drinking Water". Food and Chemical Toxicology . 38 (1 Suppl): S13–S20. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00133-7. PMID 10717366. & # 160؛ ^ Kleijnen, R. G. (December 16, 2018). The Chlorine Dilemma (PDF) . Eindhoven University of Technology . Retrieved January 18, 2017 . & # 160؛ [ page needed ] ^ Shunji Nakagawara, Takeshi Goto, Masayuki Nara, Youichi Ozaqa, Kunimoto Hotta and Yoji Arata (1998). "Spectroscopic Characterization and the pH Dependence of Bactericidal Activity of the Aqueous Chlorine Solution". Analytical Sciences . 14 (4): 691–698. doi:10.2116/analsci.14.691. & # 160؛ CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "Public Health Statement: Bromoform & Dibromochloromethane". ATSDR. 2018. [ full citation needed ] ^ Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (PDF) . Volume 1, Recommendations (third edition incorporating the first and second addenda ed.). World Health Organization. 2008. p. 5. & # 160؛ ^ a b Neumann, H. (1981). "Bacteriological safety of hot tap water in developing countries." Public Health Rep.84:812-814. ^ Baker KH, Hegarty JP, Redmond B, Reed NA, Herson DS (2002). "Effect of Oxidizing Disinfectants (Chlorine, Monochloramine, and Ozone) on Helicobacter pylori " (PDF) . Applied and Environmental Microbiology . 68 (2): 981–984. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.2.981-984.2002. PMC 126689 . PMID 11823249. & # 160؛ ^ Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1 March 1966). "Comparison of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine as Disinfectants for Swimming Pool Water". Applied Microbiology . 14 (2): 276–279. PMC 546668 . PMID 4959984. & # 160؛
External links [ edit ]
City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Water Works Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water (US EPA) National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine Chlorinated Drinking Water (IARC Monograph) NTP Study Report TR-392: Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water (US NIH) American Chemistry Council's Chlorine Chemistry Division Disinfection Practices ukwta/
1. Swimming pool sanitation – Swimming pool sanitation is the process of ensuring healthy conditions in swimming pools, hot tubs, plunge pools, and similar recreational water venues. Proper sanitation is needed to maintain the clarity of water. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also provides information on pool sanitation and water related illnesses for health professionals, the main organizations providing certifications for pool and spa operators and technicians are the National Swimming Pool Foundation and Association of Pool & Spa Professionals. The certifications are accepted by state and local health departments. Swimming pool contaminants are introduced from environmental sources and swimmers, indoor pools are less susceptible to environmental contaminants. Contaminants introduced by swimmers can dramatically influence the operation of indoor and outdoor swimming pools, in addition, the interaction between disinfectants and pool water contaminants can produce a mixture of chloramines and other disinfection by-products. The journal Environmental Science & Technology reported that sweat and urine react with chlorine and produce trichloramine and cyanogen chloride, nitrosamines are another type of the disinfection by-products that are of concern as a potential health hazard. Acesulfame potassium is used in the human diet and excreted by the kidneys. It has been used by researchers as a marker to estimate to what degree swimming pools are contaminated by urine. It was estimated that a swimming pool of 220,000 gallons would contain about 20 gallons of urine. Pathogenic contaminants are of greatest concern in swimming pools as they have associated with numerous recreational water illnesses. Public health pathogens can be present in swimming pools as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, diarrhea is the most commonly reported illness associated with pathogenic contaminants, while other diseases associated with untreated pools are Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis. Other illnesses commonly occurring in poorly maintained swimming pools include otitis externa, commonly called swimmers ear, skin rashes, contamination can be minimized by good swimmer hygiene practices such as showering before and after swimming, and not letting children with intestinal disorders swim. Effective treatments are needed to address contaminants in water because preventing the introduction of pool contaminants, pathogenic and non-pathogenic. A well-maintained, properly operating pool filtration and re-circulation system is the first barrier in combating contaminants large enough to be filtered, to kill pathogens and help prevent recreational water illnesses, pool operators must maintain proper levels of chlorine or another sanitizer. Over time, calcium from municipal water tends to accumulate, developing salt deposits in the pool walls and equipment. Calcium also absorbs chlorine and prevents proper performance of added chemicals, therefore, it is advised to either completely drain the pool, and refill it with fresh water, or recycle the existing pool water, using reverse osmosis. The advantage of the method is that 90% of the water can be reused.
2. Chlorine – Chlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them. Chlorine is a gas at room temperature. It is an extremely reactive element and a strong oxidising agent, among the elements, it has the highest electron affinity, the most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times. Around 1630, chlorine gas was first synthesised in a chemical reaction, Carl Wilhelm Scheele wrote a description of chlorine gas in 1774, supposing it to be an oxide of a new element. In 1809, chemists suggested that the gas might be an element, and this was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810. Because of its reactivity, all chlorine in the Earths crust is in the form of ionic chloride compounds. It is the second-most abundant halogen and twenty-first most abundant chemical element in Earths crust and these crustal deposits are nevertheless dwarfed by the huge reserves of chloride in seawater. Elemental chlorine is produced from brine by electrolysis. The high oxidising potential of chlorine led to the development of commercial bleaches and disinfectants. As a common disinfectant, elemental chlorine and chlorine-generating compounds are used directly in swimming pools to keep them clean. Elemental chlorine at high concentrations is extremely dangerous and poisonous for all living organisms, in the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life. Other types of compounds are rare in living organisms. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing organic molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion, small quantities of elemental chlorine are generated by oxidation of chloride to hypochlorite in neutrophils as part of the immune response against bacteria. Its importance in food was very well known in antiquity and was sometimes used as payment for services for Roman generals. Around 1630, chlorine was recognized as a gas by the Flemish chemist, the element was first studied in detail in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and he is credited with the discovery. He called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid air since it is a gas and he failed to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid. He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum, in 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muriatic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum.
3. Hypochlorite – In chemistry, hypochlorite is an ion composed of chlorine and oxygen, with the chemical formula ClO−. It can combine with a number of ions to form hypochlorites. Common examples include sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite, hypochlorites are frequently quite unstable in their pure forms and for this reason are normally handled as aqueous solutions. Their primary applications are as bleaching, disinfection and water treatment agents, a variety of hypochlorites can be formed by a disproportionation reaction between chlorine gas and metal hydroxides. The reaction must be performed at close to room temperature, as further oxidation will occur at higher temperatures leading to the formation of chlorates and this process is widely used for the industrial production of sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite. Cl2 +2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O2 Cl2 +2 Ca2 → CaCl2 + Ca2 +2 H2O Large amounts of sodium hypochlorite are also produced electrochemically via an un-separated chloralkali process. In this process brine is electrolyzed to form Cl 2 which dissociates in water to form hypochlorite and this reaction is performed in water and relies on the formation of insoluble calcium sulfate, which will precipitate out of solution, driving the reaction to completion. Ca2 + MSO4 → M2 + CaSO4 The human immune system generates minute quantities of hypochlorite during the destruction of pathogens. This takes place within special white blood cells, called neutrophil granulocytes, which engulf viruses and bacteria in an intracellular vacuole called the phagosome, part of the digestion mechanism involves an enzyme-mediated respiratory burst, which produces reactive oxygen-derived compounds, including superoxide. Superoxide decays to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which is used in a reaction to convert chloride to hypochlorite. Stability is the factor in the formation of hypochlorite salts. Only lithium hypochlorite LiOCl, calcium hypochlorite Ca2 and barium hypochlorite Ba2 have been isolated as pure anhydrous compounds, a wider variety of compounds exist in aqueous solution and in general the greater the dilution the greater their stability. The alkali metal salts decrease in stability down the group, anhydrous lithium hypochlorite is stable at room temperature, however sodium hypochlorite has not be prepared drier than the pentahydrate. This is unstable above 0 °C, although the more dilute solutions encountered as household bleach possesses better stability, potassium hypochlorite is known only in solution. It is not possible to determine trends for the earth metal salts. Beryllium hypochlorite is unheard of, however this is not unexpected as the Be2+ ion is not known in solution, pure magnesium hypochlorite cannot be prepared, however solid MgOCl is known. Calcium hypochlorite is produced on a scale and has good stability. Strontium hypochlorite, Sr2, is not well characterised and its stability has not yet been determined, hypochlorites do not form stable coordination complexes with heavy metals and so are not viable ligands.
4. Water – Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K.
5. Tap water – Tap water is water supplied to a tap. Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing of toilets, Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries. Tap water is often assumed to be drinking water, especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although water quality problems are not rare, household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used when tap waters potability is doubted. The application of technologies involved in providing water to homes, businesses. Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with increases in life expectancy. Water-borne diseases are vastly reduced by proper sewage and fresh water availability, specific chemical compounds are often taken out of tap water during the treatment process to adjust the pH or remove contaminants, and chlorine may be added to kill biological toxins. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of metal ions. Tap water remains susceptible to biological or chemical contamination, in the event of contamination deemed dangerous to public health, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved. In many areas a compound of fluoride is added to tap water in an effort to improve health among the public. In some communities fluoridation remains a controversial issue and this supply may come from several possible sources. Municipal water supply Water wells Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, domestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the residences, modern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is important that the water not be contaminated by the waste water side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans, Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure.
6. Hamburg – Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2018, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2018. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast.
7. Maidstone – Maidstone is the county town of Kent, England,32 miles south-east of London. The River Medway runs through the centre of the town, linking it with Rochester, historically, the river was a source and route for much of the towns trade as the centre of the agricultural county of Kent, known as the Garden of England. There is evidence of a settlement in the area dating back to before the Stone Age, the town is in the borough of Maidstone. In 2018, the town had a population of 113,137, maidstones economy has changed over the years from being involved in heavy industry, to more light industry and service industries. Saxon charters show the first recorded instances of the name, de maeides stana and maegdan stane. The latter meaning may refer to the nearby megalith around which took place. The name evolved through medestan/meddestane in the Domesday Book with possible variation Mayndenstan, the modern name appeared by 1610. It has been suggested that the name derives from stones set into the river to allow clothes to be rinsed in the water away from the banks. Neolithic finds have revealed the earliest occupation of the area, the Normans set up a shire moot, and religious organisations established an abbey at Boxley, hospitals and a college for priests. Today’s suburb of Penenden Heath was a place of execution in medieval times, maidstones charter as a town was granted in 1549, although briefly revoked, a new charter in 1551 created the town as a borough. The charter was ratified in 1619 under James I, and the coat of arms was designed, bearing a golden lion, recently to these arms were added the head of a white horse, a golden lion and an iguanodon. The iguanodon relates to the discovery in the 19th century of the remains of that dinosaur. Maidstone has had the right to a town gaol since 1604, during the English Civil War, the Battle of Maidstone took place in 1648, resulting in a victory for the Parliamentarians. Paper mills, stone quarrying, brewing and the industry have all flourished here. The paper maker James Whatman and his son invented wove paper at Turkey Mill from 1740, a permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of cavalry barracks in 1798. Invicta Park Barracks is now home to the 36 Engineer Regiment, Maidstone Prison is north of the town centre and was completed in 1819. Modern Maidstone incorporates a number of outlying villages and settlements, the county council offices to the north of the town centre were built of Portland stone between 1910 and 1913. On 29 September 1975 a local pub serving Invicta Park Barracks, The Hare, Maidstone General Hospital opened on the outskirts of the town in 1983, replacing West Kent General Hospital, which opened 150 years earlier in Marsham Street.
8. Slow sand filter – Slow sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep, can be rectangular or cylindrical in section and are used primarily to treat surface water. The length and breadth of the tanks are determined by the flow rate desired by the filters, slow sand filters differ from all other filters used to treat drinking water in that they work by using a complex biological film that grows naturally on the surface of the sand. The sand itself does not perform any filtration function but simply acts as a substrate, unlike its counterparts for UV, slow sand filters now are also being tested for pathogen control of nutrient solutions in hydroponic systems. This installation provided filtered water for every resident of the area, snow was sceptical of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious bad airs. Although the germ theory of disease had not yet been developed and his data convinced the local council to disable the water pump, which promptly ended the outbreak. The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the supply companies in London. The Act made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water and this was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country. Slow sand filters work through the formation of a layer called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer. The Schmutzdecke is formed in the first 10–20 days of operation and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera, as an epigeal biofilm ages, more algae tend to develop and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoa, snails and Annelid worms. The surface biofilm is the layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, as water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa, the water produced from an exemplary slow sand filter is of excellent quality with 90-99% bacterial cell count reduction. Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the biofilm thickens, eventually, it is necessary to refurbish the filter. Two methods are used to do this. In the first, the top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to expose a new layer of clean sand, Water is then decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new biofilm to develop. The filter is then filled to full volume and brought back into service, the filter column is then filled to full capacity and brought back into service.
9. Lincoln, England – Lincoln is a cathedral city and the county town of Lincolnshire, within the East Midlands of England. The non-metropolitan district of Lincoln has a 2018 population of 94,600, the 2018 census gave the entire urban area of Lincoln a population of 130,200. Lincoln developed from the Roman town of Lindum Colonia, which developed from an Iron Age settlement, Lincolns major landmarks are Lincoln Cathedral, a famous example of English Gothic architecture, and Lincoln Castle, an 11th-century Norman castle. The city is home to the University of Lincoln and Bishop Grosseteste University. See Lincoln City F. C. for Lincoln City Football Club, the earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to the remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings that have been dated to the 1st century BC. This settlement was built by a pool in the River Witham at the foot of a large hill. The extent of original settlement is unknown as its remains are now buried deep beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins. The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinised to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans, the conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York in AD71. It became a flourishing settlement, accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham. Subsequently, however, the town and its waterways fell into decline, by the close of the 5th century the city was largely deserted, although some occupation continued under a Praefectus Civitatis, for Saint Paulinus visited a man of this office in Lincoln in AD629. During this period the Latin name Lindum Colonia was shortened in Old English to become first Lindocolina, after the first destructive Viking raids, the city once again rose to some importance, with overseas trading connections. After the establishment of the Danelaw in 886, Lincoln became one of the Five Boroughs in the East Midlands, excavations at Flaxengate reveal that this area, deserted since Roman times, received new timber-framed buildings fronting a new street system in about 900. Lincoln experienced an explosion in its economy with the settlement of the Danes. By 950, however, the banks of the Witham were newly developed with the Lower City being resettled and the suburb of Wigford quickly emerging as a major trading centre. In 1068, two years after the Norman conquest, William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement, for the strategic reasons. The rebuilt Lincoln Minster, enlarged to the east at each rebuilding, was on a magnificent scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputed to have been 525 ft high, the highest in Europe. When completed the central of the three spires is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the tallest man-made structure in the world, when Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln. One of only four surviving originals of the document is preserved in Lincoln Castle, theologian William de Montibus was the head of the cathedral school and chancellor until his death in 1213.
10. United States – Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third - or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci.
11. Disinfection – Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfectants are different from other agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, Disinfectants work by destroying the cell wall of microbes or interfering with the metabolism. Sanitizer are substances that simultaneously clean and disinfect, Disinfectants are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens, and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms. Bacterial endospores are most resistant to disinfectants, but some viruses, an alternative term used in the sanitation sector for disinfection of waste streams, sewage sludge or fecal sludge is sanitisation or sanitization. A perfect disinfectant would also complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful to humans or animals, most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur, the choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a spectrum, while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties. There are arguments for creating or maintaining conditions that are not conducive to survival and multiplication. Bacteria can increase in very quickly, which enables them to evolve rapidly. Should some bacteria survive an attack, they give rise to new generations composed completely of bacteria that have resistance to the particular chemical used. Under a sustained attack, the surviving bacteria in successive generations are increasingly resistant to the chemical used. For this reason, some question the wisdom of impregnating cloths, cutting boards, air disinfectants are typically chemical substances capable of disinfecting microorganisms suspended in the air. Disinfectants are generally assumed to be limited to use on surfaces, in 1928, a study found that airborne microorganisms could be killed using mists of dilute bleach. An air disinfectant must be dispersed either as an aerosol or vapour at a sufficient concentration in the air to cause the number of infectious microorganisms to be significantly reduced. In principle, these substances are ideal air disinfectants because they have both high lethality to microorganisms and low mammalian toxicity. The engineering challenge associated with creating a sufficient concentration of the glycol vapours in the air have not to date been sufficiently addressed, Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane, 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins.
12. Rockaway River – The Rockaway River is a tributary of the Passaic River, approximately 35 mi long, in northern New Jersey in the United States. The upper course of the flows through a wooded mountainous valley, whereas the lower course flows through the populated New Jersey suburbs. It drains an area of approximately 130 sq mi and it rises at the eastern edge of Sussex County and within a few hundred yards enters Morris County, in the Highlands, along the northwestern slope of Green Pond Mountain south of Oak Ridge. It flows SSW, in a course between in the valley between the mountain ridges. Northeast of Wharton it emerges from the mountains and flows generally east in a course, past Wharton, Dover, Rockaway, Denville and Boonton. The gorge begins with the impressive 25 foot Boonton Falls and it continues for a little over 1 mile dropping around 120 feet per mile through nearly continuous class 3 and 4 whitewater. On the south side of Boonton it is impounded to form the Boonton Reservoir, downstream from the reservoir dam it flows south, through Lake Hiawatha, where the river splits and joins again. It then flows through Parsippany and into Hatfield Swamp, where it is joined by the Whippany River, beaver brook is a stream that flows through a swamp and enters the Rockaway River in Denville. In the 19th century the river connected to the Morris Canal near Wharton and served as a transportation link for shipping coal. The communities of Wharton, Dover, and Boonton were important iron processing towns in the early 19th century, with a concentration of forges. The significant pollution problem in the course of the river has been somewhat alleviated by legislation. The isolated upper course of the river is a popular site for smallmouth bass fishing. The New Jersey Fish and Game stocks the river in many sections with rainbow, many fisherman find enjoyment in fishing the river. The river is shown in the movie, The Station Agent, the Rockaway River has the potential to cause flooding in the area of Denville that is north of the central business district, including residential areas along the river. During the massive flooding following Hurricane Irene in August 2018, the Rockaway River crested approx,6 feet above its previous record flood level. The flooding was considered to be a 500 year event, the downtown Denville business district and surrounding residential areas were flooded, by in some places up to 8 feet of water. As silt has accumulated in the basin, the average depth of the river has steadily decreased. Since the flooding of Irene there has no problems reported with the river overreaching its banks.
13. Jersey City, New Jersey – Jersey City is the second-most-populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey after Newark. It is the seat of Hudson County as well as the countys largest city. 7% from the 2018 United States Census, when the citys population was at 247,597, ranking the city the 75th-largest in the nation. Part of the New York metropolitan area, Jersey City is bounded on the east by the Hudson River and Upper New York Bay and on the west by the Hackensack River and Newark Bay. After a peak population of 316,715 measured in the 1930 Census, the land comprising what is now Jersey City was inhabited by the Lenape, a collection of tribes. After spending nine days surveying the area and meeting its inhabitants, by 1621, the Dutch West India Company was organized to manage this new territory and in June 1623, New Netherland became a Dutch province, with headquarters in New Amsterdam. Michael Reyniersz Pauw received a grant as patroon on the condition that he would establish a settlement of not fewer than fifty persons within four years. He chose the west bank of the North River and purchased the land from the Lenape and this grant is dated November 22,1630 and is the earliest known conveyance for what are now Hoboken and Jersey City. Pauw, however, was a landlord who neglected to populate the area and was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633. That year, a house was built at Communipaw for Jan Evertsen Bout, superintendent of the colony, during Kiefts War, approximately eighty Lenapes were killed by the Dutch in a massacre at Pavonia on the night of February 25,1643. Scattered communities of farmsteads characterized the Dutch settlements at Pavonia, Communipaw, Harsimus, Paulus Hook, Hoebuck, Awiehaken, and other lands behind Kil van Kull. The first village established on what is now Bergen Square in 1660, among the oldest surviving houses in Jersey City are the Newkirk House, the Van Vorst Farmhouse, and the Van Wagenen House. During the American Revolutionary War, the area was in the hands of the British who controlled New York, in the Battle of Paulus Hook Major Light Horse Harry Lee attacked a British fortification on August 19,1779. During the 19th century, former slaves reached Jersey City on one of the four routes of the Underground Railroad that led to the city. The City of Jersey was incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on January 28,1820, from portions of Bergen Township, while the area was still a part of Bergen County. The city was reincorporated on January 23,1829, and again on February 22,1838, on February 22,1840, it became part of the newly created Hudson County. Soon after the Civil War, the idea arose of uniting all of the towns of Hudson County east of the Hackensack River into one municipality. A bill was approved by the legislature on April 2,1869. An element of the bill provide that only contiguous towns could be consolidated, while a majority of the voters across the county approved the merger, the only municipalities that had approved the consolidation plan and that adjoined Jersey City were Hudson City and Bergen City.
14. Calcium hypochlorite – Calcium hypochlorite is an inorganic compound with formula Ca2. As a mixture with lime and calcium chloride, it is marketed as chlorine powder or bleach powder for water treatment and this compound is relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite. It is a solid, although commercial samples appear yellow. It strongly smells of chlorine, owing to its slow decomposition in moist air and it is not highly soluble in water and is more preferably used in soft to medium-hard water. It has two forms, dry and hydrated, Calcium hypochlorite is commonly used to sanitize public swimming pools and disinfect drinking water. Generally the commercial substance is sold with a purity of a 68%, for instance as a swimming pool chemical it is often mixed with cyanuric acid stabilizers and anti-scaling agents. Calcium hypochlorite is used in kitchens to disinfect surfaces and equipment. Other common uses include bathroom cleansers, household disinfectant sprays, algaecides, herbicides, Calcium hypochlorite is a general oxidizing agent and therefore finds some use in organic chemistry. For instance the compound is used to cleave glycols, α-hydroxy carboxylic acids, Calcium hypochlorite can also be used in the haloform reaction to manufacture chloroform. 3 Ca2 +2 2CO →2 CHCl3 +2 Ca2+ Ca2 Calcium hypochlorite is produced industrially by treating lime with chlorine gas, the reaction can be conducted in stages to give various compositions, each with different concentration of calcium hypochlorite, together with unconverted lime and calcium chloride. The full conversion is shown 2 Cl 2 +2 Ca 2 → Ca 2 + CaCl 2 +2 H 2O Bleaching powder is not a mixture of calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride. Instead, it is a mixture consisting principally of calcium hypochlorite Ca2, dibasic calcium hypochlorite, Ca324 and it is made from slightly moist slaked lime. Calcium hypochlorite reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbonate and release dichlorine monoxide. This basicity is due to the performed by the hypochlorite ion, as hypochlorous acid is weak. The hydrated form is safer to handle.
15. John L. Leal – John Laing Leal was a physician and water treatment expert who, in 1908, was responsible for conceiving and implementing the first disinfection of a U. S. drinking water supply using chlorine. In 1862, his father, John R. Leal who was a physician, John R. Leal saw service in a number of areas during the Civil War including Folly Island during the Siege of Charleston, South Carolina. He contracted a case of amoebic dysentery at Folly Island from which he suffered for the next 19 years before the disease caused his death in 1882. In 1867, Dr. John R. Leal moved his family from Andes to the growing industrial city of Paterson. John L. Leal received his education at the Paterson Seminary. He attended Princeton College from 1876 to 1880, John L. Leal attended medical school at the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons from 1880 to 1884 where he received his medical degree. After obtaining his degree, Leal opened a medical practice in Paterson, New Jersey. Along with other physicians, he founded the outpatient clinic at Paterson General Hospital in 1887, in 1888, he married Amy Arrowsmith and their only son, Graham, was born within the year. Leals career in Paterson city government continued with his appointment as Health Inspector in 1891, as Health Officer, Leal was responsible for the identification of epidemics of communicable diseases and for the disinfection of the homes of the afflicted. He also oversaw the public supply and was responsible for constructing the growing network of sewers to remove domestic. To prevent the spread of diseases, he was responsible for building an Isolation Hospital in Paterson in 1897. He published several papers during his tenure as Health Officer including one described the cause of a waterborne typhoid fever outbreak in Paterson. In 1899, Leal left the service and became the sanitary adviser to the East Jersey Water Company. Toward the end of his life, Leal was President of the Board of Health for the City of Paterson, Leal belonged to a large number of professional associations. In 1884, he was elected a member of the Medical Society of New Jersey, in 1900, he was Vice President of that organization. In 1905, he was active in the State Medical Society, in 1903, Leal was president of the New Jersey Sanitary Association. On the program for the Sanitary Association meeting on December 4–5,1903 and these professionals interacted with one another throughout their careers. He was a member of the American Medical Association and the American Public Health Association, at the APHA annual meeting in 1897, Leal read a paper entitled, “House Sanitation with Reference to Drainage, Plumbing, and Ventilation”
16. George W. Fuller – George Warren Fuller was a sanitary engineer who was also trained in bacteriology and chemistry. His career extended from 1890 to 1934 and he was responsible for important innovations in water and wastewater treatment and he designed and built the first modern water filtration plant, and he designed and built the first chlorination system that disinfected a U. S. drinking water supply. In addition, he performed groundbreaking engineering work on sewage treatment facilities in the U. S and he was President of both the American Water Works Association and the American Public Health Association, and he was recognized internationally as an expert civil and sanitary engineer. George W. Fuller was born in Franklin, Massachusetts in 1868, after his primary and secondary education, he was accepted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at the age of 16. He deferred his attendance at MIT for one due to the death of his father. At MIT, he studied under William T, Sedgwick and completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1890. Sedgwick was able to send Fuller to Berlin, Germany to study under the engineer for the Berlin waterworks. During his stay in Berlin, Fuller studied bacteriology at the Hygiene Institute of the University of Berlin, after returning from Berlin, Fuller started working at the Lawrence Experiment Station in Lawrence, Massachusetts while still under the tutelage of William T. Sedgwick. While at LES, he investigated the treatment of sewage using filtration systems and his most important work was the study of filtration for potable water treatment. During the period 1895 to 1897, Fuller was hired by the City of Louisville, the focus of his investigations were on mechanical filtration treatment systems, which used filtration rates that were 60 times higher than those of slow sand filters. Aluminum sulfate was added prior to filtration to form particles that would be amenable to filtration. Fuller learned from his Louisville work when he designed the investigations at Cincinnati, from 1897 to 1899, Fuller investigated mechanical filtration using the addition of aluminum sulfate followed by a sedimentation step before the final filtration process. After completing the Cincinnati filtration report, Fuller opened a single person consulting practice in New York City, one of his first assignments was from the East Jersey Water Company to design a 30 million gallon per day mechanical filtration plant at Little Falls, New Jersey. On June 19,1908, Fuller was hired by John L. Leal to design and build a system for the Jersey City. Given an impossible deadline as a result of a New Jersey Chancery Court order, Fuller successfully completed the system in 99 days. John L. Leal developed the concept of applying chlorine in the form of a dilute solution of chloride of lime at fractions of a ppm. Fuller modeled his chloride of lime feed system on the aluminum sulfate feed system that he designed for the Little Falls Water Treatment Plant. The chlorination facility fed 0.2 to 0.35 ppm of chlorine to a water flow of 40 million gallons per day from Boonton Reservoir.
17. Indian Medical Service – The Indian Medical Service was a military medical service in British India, which also had some civilian functions. It served during the two World Wars, and remained in existence until the independence of India in 1947, many of its officers, who were both British and Indian, served in civilian hospitals. The Raj set up the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine between 1910 and its opening in 1921 as a center for tropical medicine on the periphery of the Empire. The IMS was one of the routes to becoming a Political officer in the Indian Political Department, the earliest positions for medical officers in the British East India Company were as ship surgeons. The first three surgeons to have served were John Banester on the Leicester, Lewis Attmer on the Edward, the first Company fleet went out in 1600 with James Lancaster on the Red Dragon and three other ships each with two surgeons and a barber. This was the voyage on which the experiment on lemon juice as a cure for scurvy was carried out. With the establishment of trading posts, factories, around India, more surgeons and physicians found employment not only with Europeans but in the service of wealthy natives. These men of medicine included Nicholas Manucci, a Venetian born in 1639 who served Dara Shikoh before studying medicine in Lahore where he served Shah Alam from 1678-82. An Armenian named Sikandar Beg served as surgeon to Suleiman Shikoh, son of Darah Shikoh, Surgeons were often assigned on diplomatic missions to various courts and they were found to be very influential. The first surgeon at Calcutta was an unknown Dutchman who resigned in 1691. William Hamilton was particularly famous, John Zephaniah Holwell who came to Bengal as a Surgeon in 1732 was appointed as Zamindar of Calcutta. He was captured in 1756 by Siraj-ud-Daulah and survived the Black Hole, Holwell was noted as a careful student of native customs and it has been suggested that if he had been in charge of Fort William, the entire incident would not have happened. He returned to England became an advisor on matters of government. Surgeons were also often spared in wartime, William Fullerton was the sole survivor in 1763 at Patna when the English fought Nawab Mir Qasim. Samuel Browne served around 1694 at Fort St. George, Madras from where he reported on his botanical. Jean Martin served Haider Ali and a Jean Castarede served under Tipoo Sultan, John Martin Honigberger from Transylvania served Ranjit Singh around 1830 and later at a hospital set up by Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore. Benjamin Simpson captured numerous photographs during his service in the half of the 19th century. A hierarchy was introduced into the establishment of the East India Company in 1614 with the appointment of a Surgeon General, Woodall was however accused of embezzling pay from apprentices that he would hire. With continuing complaints and a financial crunch Woodall was retrenched in 1642, another Surgeon Walter Chesley was sent home from service in Sumatra for drunkenness, while a Dr. Coote was removed from Bencoolen for debauchery in 1697.
18. Major (United States) – In the United States Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force, major is a field grade military officer rank above the rank of captain and below the rank of lieutenant colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant commander in the other uniformed services. Although lieutenant commanders are considered junior officers by their respective services, the pay grade for the rank of major is O-4. The insignia for the rank consists of an oak leaf. Promotion to major is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980, a major in the U. S. Army typically serves as a battalion executive officer or as the battalion operations officer. A major can also serve as a staff officer for a regiment, brigade or task force in the areas concerning personnel, logistics. A major will also be a staff officer / action officer on higher staffs, in addition, majors command augmented companies in Combat Service and Service Support units. U. S. Army majors also command Special operations companies, during the American Civil War the Union Army continued to use the existing titles of rank and rank insignia established for the US Army. The number of rows of lace increased with the rank of the officer. A major in the Air Force typically has duties as a staff officer at the squadron. In flying squadrons majors are generally flight commanders or assistant directors of operations, in the mission support and maintenance groups majors may occasionally be squadron commanders. In the medical corps, a major may be the head of a clinic or flight, many police agencies in the United States use the rank of major for officers in senior administrative and supervisory positions. The position is most often found in larger agencies, where the number of sworn personnel requires an expanded and complex rank structure. The term major is not always used in scenarios, and some police departments prefer to use titles such as Deputy Chief, Commander, or similar. However, there are agencies, particularly state police, which prefer to use both the insignia and title. The rank may also be used in conjunction with, rather than instead of, confederate Army rank insignia, A guide Officer rank insignia Rank history.
19. Carl Rogers Darnall – Brigadier General Carl Rogers Darnall was a United States Army chemist and surgeon credited with originating the technique of liquid chlorination of drinking water. Chlorination has been an important innovation in public health, saving innumerable lives. Darnall was born on his father’s farm in the Cottage Hill community near McKinney, in Collin County and he was the eldest of the seven children of Reverend Joseph Rogers Darnall, minister of the Christian Church, and Mary Ellen Darnall. He studied at Carlton College, Bonham, Texas, and Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky and received a MD degree from Jefferson Medical College, in 1892 he married Annie Estella Major of Erwinna, Pennsylvania. In 1896, after a few years of practice, he was commissioned a first lieutenant and assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army. He graduated from the Army Medical School in Washington the following year, Darnall’s first assignments were to stations in Texas – Fort Clark at Brackettville, and Fort McIntosh at Laredo. During the Spanish–American War, Darnall served in Cuba, later, he served as an operating surgeon and pathologist aboard the hospital ship USS Relief in the Philippines and commanded the hospital at Iloilo. He was one of the few officers that accompanied the Allied Forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China. In 1902, Darnall returned to Washington, D. C. and served as secretary of the faculty and instructor for sanitary chemistry and it was while a major and a professor of chemistry there that he demonstrated the value of anhydrous, liquefied chlorine in purifying water. His 1910 invention, the mechanical liquid chlorine purifier, was the prototype of the technology that is now applied to water supplies throughout the world. Darnall also devised and patented a water filter that was used by the Army for many years, Major William Lyster further adapted the process of water chlorination to field use by inventing a method to apply sodium hypochlorite in a cloth bag, known as a Lyster bag. Darnall was promoted to Colonel in 1917, during World War I, Darnall’s talents for business and organization were recognized and he was assigned to the Finance and Supply Division in the Office of The Surgeon General. After the war, he served as department surgeon in Hawaii, in 1925, he returned to the OTSG as executive officer. In November,1929, he was promoted to general and became the Commanding General of the Army Medical Center. Darnall died on 18 January 1941 at Walter Reed General Hospital, Washington, six days earlier, his wife had died at the family home in Washington. They left three sons, Joseph Rogers, William Major, and Carl Robert, all of whom served in capacity in the Army. He is buried in the Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, Darnall was a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons, a member of the American Medical Association and Association of Military Surgeons of the United States. He was a veteran of the Military Order of the Carabao, member of the Army and Navy Club of Washington, Darnall received the Distinguished Service Medal for his organizing, developing and administering medical supplies during World War I.
20. Army Medical School – Founded by U. S. Army Brigadier General George Miller Sternberg, MD in 1893, the Army Medical School was by some reckonings the worlds first school of public health and preventive medicine. The AMS ultimately became the Army Medical Center, then the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Sternberg created the AMS by issuing General Order 51 on June 24,1893. The School was housed, along with the Army Medical Library in the building of the Army Medical Museum and Library at 7th Street and South B Street, SW, Washington, D. C. In 1910, the AMS relocated to 721 13th Street, NW, the historic edifice known as Building #40 was constructed at 14th and Dahlia Streets beginning in 1922 and reached completion in 1932. This facility consists of four Pavilions, The North or Vedder Pavilion, The South or Craig Pavilion, The East or Sternberg Pavilion, The West or Siler Pavilion. In 1947, the MDPSS became the Army Medical Department Research and Graduate School, in September 1951, General Order Number 8 combined the WRGH & AMC into the present-day Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Three years later, the elements of this facility became the present-day Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. The Evolution of Public Health Education in the U. S. Army, 1893-1966, Army Medical Department Journal, PB 8-06-2, April-June 2006, pp 7-17.
21. Army Medical Department (United States) – It was established as the Army Hospital in July 1775 to coordinate the medical care required by the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. The AMEDD is led by the Surgeon General of the U. S. Army, the AMEDD is the U. S. Armys healthcare organization, not a U. S. Army command. It is found in all three branches of the Army, the Active Army, the U. S. Army Reserve, and its headquarters is at Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas, which hosts the AMEDD Center and School. Large numbers of AMEDD senior leaders can also be found in the Washington D. C. area, the Academy of Health Sciences, within the AMEDDC&S, provides training to the officers and enlisted service members of the AMEDD. The current Surgeon General of the U. S. Army is LTG Nadja West and she is also commander of the U. S. Army Medical Command. Congress provided an Army medical organization only in times of war or emergency until 1818, the Army Organization Act of 1950 renamed the Medical Department the Army Medical Service and on June 4,1968 the AMS was renamed the Army Medical Department. A regimental coat of arms was devised for the Medical Department, the 20 white stars on a blue background and the red and white stripes represent the U. S. flag of 1818. The colors Argent and Gules are those associated with the flag of the United States, the rooster is associated with the ancient Greek and Roman god of healing and medicine, Aesculapius. The Ancient Greeks believed that the rooster’s crowing at dawn drove away the disease spreading demons from the temples so that it could be a place of healing. The torse below the rooster shows alternating blue and silver colors which were the colors of the Army in 1818, the Latin motto Experientia et Progressus, is meant to convey the steady and unfailing progress of the Army Medical Department since 1775. The design of the AMEDD regimental insignia is derived from the coat of arms. It is one of the US Army’s 14 regimental corps insignias and these insignias are worn over the right breast pocket on the Army Service Uniform and signify the service member’s branch of service. The new AMEDD insignia was approved on 27 October 2017, the caduceus in its present form was approved in 1902. Today, the AMEDD branch corps insignia is a gold color medal caduceus,1 inch in height, with the exception of the Medical Corps, each Corps is identified by a black enamel letter centered on the caduceus indicative of the specific branch. The insignia for Medical Service Corps is silver, there are currently six special officer branches in the AMEDD. The MC traces its origins to 27 July 1775, when the Continental Congress created “a Hospital”, essentially a Medical Department and corps of physicians, Medical officers in the United States Army were authorized uniforms only in 1816 and were accorded military rank only in 1847. Congress made the designation of Medical Corps official in 1908, although the term had long been in use informally among the AMEDDs regular physicians, today, members of the MC work around the world at all echelons of the Army. The Chief of the MC is a general, whereas the senior Army Medical Department officer is the Surgeon General.
22. Reverse osmosis – Reverse osmosis is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, a pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended species from water, including bacteria, the result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be selective, this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores, in the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration. Applying an external pressure to reverse the flow of pure solvent. The process is similar to other membrane technology applications, however, key differences are found between reverse osmosis and filtration. Reverse osmosis also involves diffusion, making the process dependent on pressure, flow rate, reverse osmosis is most commonly known for its use in drinking water purification from seawater, removing the salt and other effluent materials from the water molecules. The process of osmosis through semipermeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet, for the following 200 years, osmosis was only a phenomenon observed in the laboratory. In 1950, the University of California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of seawater using semipermeable membranes, cadottes patent on this process was the subject of litigation and has since expired. Almost all commercial reverse osmosis membrane is now made by this method, by the end of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the planning stages, worldwide. In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a scale with an initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons per day. By 1985, due to the growth in population of Cape Coral. In most cases, the membrane is designed to only water to pass through this dense layer. This process is best known for its use in desalination, but since the early 1970s, it has also used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial. Around the world, household drinking water systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking. CTA membrane is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a layer and are made to allow contact with chlorine in the water. These require an amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85–95%, the cellulose triacetate membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by chlorinated water, while the thin film composite membrane is prone to breaking down under the influence of chlorine.
23. Drinking water – Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in 2018, 91% of people had access to suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2 billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps,1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among others, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health issues. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60% of weight in men and 55% of weight in women, infants are about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are around 45%. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation and its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. Bottled water is sold for consumption in most parts of the world. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 litres per day may be required. Some health authorities have suggested that at least eight glasses of eight fl oz each are required by an adult per day, the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. However, various reviews of the evidence performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any scientific evidence recommending eight glasses of water per day. An individuals thirst provides a guide for how much water they require rather than a specific.
24. Philadelphia – In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2018 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland.
25. Pennsylvania – Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America.
26. Sodium hypochlorite – Sodium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with the formula NaClO. It is composed of a cation and a hypochlorite anion. When dissolved in water it is known as bleach or liquid bleach. Sodium hypochlorite is practically and chemically distinct from chlorine, Sodium hypochlorite is frequently used as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent. Among other applications, it can be used to remove stains, dental stains caused by fluorosis. It has also used in laundry detergents. Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad spectrum anti-microbial activity and is used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings. It is usually diluted in water depending on its intended use, a weak solution of 2% household bleach in warm water is used to sanitize smooth surfaces prior to brewing of beer or wine. Surfaces must be rinsed to avoid imparting flavors to the brew, the mode of disinfectant action of sodium hypochlorite is similar to that of hypochlorous acid. If higher concentrations are used, the surface must be rinsed with water after sanitizing. Strong chlorine solution made with household bleach is used for disinfecting areas contaminated with body fluids and this 1,10 dilution of 5. 25%–6. 15% sodium hypochlorite with water yields between 5250–6150 ppm available chlorine and is able to inactivate both C Diff and HPV. Liquids containing sodium hypochlorite as the active component are also used for household cleaning and disinfection. Some cleaners are formulated to be thick so as not to drain quickly from vertical surfaces, neutrophils of the human immune system produce small amounts of hypochlorite inside phagosomes, which digest bacteria and viruses. Sodium hypochlorite has deodorizing properties, which go hand in hand with its cleaning properties, Sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used to treat dilute cyanide waste water, such as electroplating wastes. In batch treatment operations, sodium hypochlorite has been used to more concentrated cyanide wastes. In solutions typically of 10–15% by weight, Sodium hypochlorite is the medicament of choice due to its efficacy against pathogenic organisms and pulp digestion in endodontic therapy. Its concentration for use varies from 0. 5% to 5. 25%, at low concentrations it dissolves mainly necrotic tissue, at higher concentrations it also dissolves vital tissue and additional bacterial species. 2% is a concentration as there is less risk of an iatrogenic hypochorite incident.
27. Halogen – The halogens or halogen elements are a group in the periodic table consisting of five chemically related elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The artificially created element 117 may also be a halogen, in the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17. The symbol X is often used generically to refer to any halogen, when halogens react with metals they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride, silver bromide and potassium iodide. The group of halogens is the periodic table group that contains elements in three of the four main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen, most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens, that is chlorine, bromine and iodine, are used as disinfectants. Organobromides are the most important class of flame retardants, elemental halogens are dangerously to potentially lethally toxic. The fluorine mineral fluorospar was known as early as 1529, early chemists realized that fluorine compounds contain an undiscovered element, but were unable to isolate it. In 1869, George Gore, an English chemist, ran a current of electricity through hydrofluoric acid and discovered fluorine, in 1886, Henri Moissan, a chemist in Paris, performed electrolysis on potassium bifluoride dissolved in waterless hydrofluoric acid, and successfully produced fluorine. Hydrochloric acid was known to alchemists and early chemists, However, elemental chlorine was not produced until 1774, when Carl Wilhelm Scheele heated hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. Scheele called the element dephlogisticated muriatic acid, which is how chlorine was known for 33 years, in 1807, Humphry Davy investigated chlorine and discovered that it is an actual element. Chlorine was used as a poison gas during World War I, bromine was discovered in the 1820s by Antoine-Jérôme Balard. Balard discovered bromine by passing gas through a sample of brine. He originally proposed the name muride for the new element, iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois, who was using seaweed ash as part of a process for saltpeter manufacture. Courtois typically boiled the seaweed ash with water to generate potassium chloride, However, in 1811, Courtois added sulfuric acid to his process, and found that his process produced purple fumes that condensed into black crystals. Suspecting that these crystals were a new element, Courtois sent samples to other chemists for investigation, iodine was proven to be a new element by Joseph Gay-Lussac. In 1931, Fred Allison claimed to have discovered element 85 with a machine, and named the element Alabamine. In 1937, Jajendralal De claimed to have discovered element 85 in minerals, and called the element dakine, element 85, now named astatine, was produced successfully in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, K. R.
28. Bacteria – Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2018, data reported by researchers in October 2018, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea.
29. Protozoans – In 21st-century systems of biological classification, the Protozoa are defined as a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Historically, protozoa were defined as single-celled animals or organisms with animal-like behaviors, such as motility, the group was regarded as the zoological counterpart to the protophyta, which were considered to be plant-like, as they are capable of photosynthesis. The terms protozoa and protozoans are now mostly used informally to designate single-celled, non-photosynthetic protists, such as the ciliates, amoebae and flagellates. The term Protozoa was introduced in 1818 for a taxonomic class, in several classification systems proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators since 1981, Protozoa is ranked as a kingdom. The seven-kingdom scheme proposed by Ruggiero et al. in 2018, places eight phyla under Protozoa, Euglenozoa, Amoebozoa, Metamonada, Choanozoa, Loukozoa, Percolozoa, Microsporidia and Sulcozoa. This kingdom does not form a clade, but an evolutionary grade or paraphyletic group, from which the fungi, for this reason, the terms protists, Protista or Protoctista are sometimes preferred for the high-level classification of eukaryotic microbes. In 2005, members of the Society of Protozoologists voted to change the name of organization to the International Society of Protistologists. The word protozoa was coined in 1818 by zoologist Georg August Goldfuss, as the Greek equivalent of the German Urthiere, meaning primitive, Goldfuss erected Protozoa as a class containing what he believed to be the simplest animals. Originally, the group included not only microbes, but also some lower animals, such as rotifers, corals, sponges, jellyfish, bryozoa. In 1848, in light of advancements in cell theory pioneered by Theodore Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, von Siebold redefined Protozoa to include only such unicellular forms, to the exclusion of all metazoa. At the same time, he raised the group to the level of a phylum containing two broad classes of microbes, Infusoria, and Rhizopoda. As a phylum under Animalia, the Protozoa were firmly rooted in the old two-kingdom classification of life, criticism of this system began in the latter half of the 19th century, with the realization that many organisms met the criteria for inclusion among both plants and animals. For example, the algae Euglena and Dinobryon have chloroplasts for photosynthesis, as an alternative, he proposed a new kingdom called Primigenum, consisting of both the protozoa and unicellular algae, which he combined together under the name Protoctista. In Hoggss conception, the animal and plant kingdoms were likened to two great pyramids blending at their bases in the Kingdom Primigenum, six years later, Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom of life, which he named Protista. Despite these proposals, Protozoa emerged as the taxonomic placement for heterotrophic microbes such as amoebae and ciliates. A variety of systems were proposed, and Kingdoms Protista and Protoctista became well established in biology texts. While many taxonomists have abandoned Protozoa as a group, Thomas Cavalier-Smith has retained it as a kingdom in the various classifications he has proposed. As of 2018, Cavalier-Smiths Protozoa excludes several major groups of organisms traditionally placed among the protozoa, including the ciliates, dinoflagellates, Protozoa, as traditionally defined, are mainly microscopic organisms, ranging in size from 10 to 52 micrometers.
30. Chlorine production – This article presents the industrial and laboratory methodologies to prepare elemental chlorine. Chlorine can be manufactured by electrolysis of a chloride solution. The production of chlorine results in the caustic soda and hydrogen gas. These two products, as well as itself, are highly reactive. Chlorine can also be produced by the electrolysis of a solution of chloride, in which case the co-products are hydrogen. The rocking cells used have been improved over the years, today, in the primary cell, titanium anodes are placed in a sodium chloride solution flowing over a liquid mercury cathode. When a potential difference is applied and current flows, chlorine is released at the titanium anode and this flows continuously into a separate reactor, where it is usually converted back to mercury by reaction with water, producing hydrogen and sodium hydroxide at a commercially useful concentration. The mercury is recycled to the primary cell by a pump situated at the bottom. The mercury process is the least energy-efficient of the three main technologies and there are concerns about mercury emissions. It is estimated there are still around 100 mercury-cell plants operating worldwide. In Japan, mercury-based chloralkali production was phased out by 1987. In the United States, there will be only five plants remaining in operation by the end of 2008. In Europe, mercury cells accounted for 43% of capacity in 2006 and this technology was also developed at the end of the nineteenth century. There are several variants of this process, the Le Sueur cell, the Hargreaves-Bird cell, the Gibbs cell, the cells vary in construction and placement of the diaphragm, with some having the diaphragm in direct contact with the cathode. The salt solution is fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced. As a result, diaphragm methods produce alkali that is quite dilute, development of this technology began in the 1970s. The electrolysis cell is divided two sections by a cation permeable membrane acting as an ion exchanger. Saturated sodium chloride solution is passed through the compartment, leaving at a lower concentration.
31. Oxidizing agent – In chemistry, an oxidizing agent is a substance that has the ability to oxidize other substances. Common oxidizing agents are oxygen, hydrogen peroxide and halogens, in one sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that undergoes a chemical reaction that removes one or more electrons from another atom. In that sense, it is one component in an oxidation–reduction reaction, in the second sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that transfers electronegative atoms, usually oxygen, to a substrate. Combustion, many explosives, and organic redox reactions involve atom-transfer reactions, electron acceptors participate in electron-transfer reactions. In this context, the agent is called an electron acceptor. A classic oxidizing agent is the ferrocenium ion Fe+2, which accepts an electron to form Fe2, one of the strongest acceptors commercially available is Magic blue, the radical cation derived from N3. Extensive tabulations of ranking the electron accepting properties of various reagents are available, in more common usage, an oxidising agent transfers oxygen atoms to a substrate. In this context, the agent can be called an oxygenation reagent or oxygen-atom transfer agent. Examples include MnO−4, CrO2−4, OsO4, and especially ClO−4, notice that these species are all oxides. In some cases, these oxides can also serve as electron acceptors, as illustrated by the conversion of MnO−4 to MnO2−4, by this definition some materials that are classified as oxidising agents by analytical chemists are not classified as oxidising agents in a dangerous materials sense. An example is potassium dichromate, which does not pass the dangerous goods test of an oxidising agent, the U. S. Department of Transportation defines oxidizing agents specifically. There are two definitions for oxidizing agents governed under DOT regulations and these two are Class 5, Division 5.1 and Class 5, Division 5.2. Division 5.1 means a material that may, generally by yielding oxygen, combustion Dye Electrosynthesis Organic oxidation Organic redox reaction Reducing agent.
32. Hypochlorous acid – Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming ClO-. HClO and ClO - are oxidizers, and the primary agents of chlorine solutions. HClO cannot be isolated from these due to rapid equilibration with its precursor. Sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite, are bleaches, deodorants, in organic synthesis, HClO converts alkenes to chlorohydrins. In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, in the cosmetics industry it is used as a skin cleansing agent, which benefits the bodys skin rather than causing drying. It is also used in products, because baby skin is particularly sensitive. In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products, thus, the formation of stable hypochlorite bleaches is facilitated by dissolving chlorine gas into basic water solutions, such as sodium hydroxide. One of the best-known hypochlorites is NaClO, the ingredient in bleach. HClO is a stronger oxidant than chlorine under standard conditions. 2 HClO +2 H+ +2 e− ⇌ Cl2 +2 H2O E = +1.63 V HClO reacts with HCl to form gas, HClO + HCl → H2O + Cl2 HClO reacts with amines to form chloramines. Reacting with ammonia, NH3 + HClO → NH2Cl + H2O HClO can also react with organic amines, hypochlorous acid reacts with a wide variety of biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, fatty acid groups, cholesterol and proteins. First noted that HClO is an inhibitor that, in sufficient quantity. This is because HClO oxidises sulfhydryl groups, leading to the formation of bonds that can result in crosslinking of proteins. One sulfhydryl-containing amino acid can scavenge up to four molecules of HOCl, the first reaction yields sulfenic acid then sulfinic acid and finally R–SO3H. Sulfenic acids form disulfides with another protein group, causing cross-linking. Sulfinic acid and R–SO3H derivatives are produced only at high molar excesses of HClO, disulfide bonds can also be oxidized by HClO to sulfinic acid. Because the oxidation of sulfhydryls and disulfides evolves hydrochloric acid, this results in the depletion HClO. Hypochlorous acid reacts readily with acids that have amino group side-chains, with the chlorine from HClO displacing a hydrogen.
33. Enzymes – Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology, enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules, enzymes specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures. Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy, some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules, inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzymes activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase and he wrote that alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells. In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne first used the term enzyme, the word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897, in a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose zymase, in 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of cell-free fermentation. Following Buchners example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out, the biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein and crystallized it. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, the discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology, an enzymes name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in - ase.
34. Proteins – Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar.
35. Hydrochloric acid – Hydrochloric acid is a corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. A colorless, highly pungent solution of chloride in water. Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, later, it was used by chemists such as Glauber, Priestley, and Davy in their scientific research. It has numerous applications, including household cleaning, production of gelatin and other food additives, descaling. About 20 million tonnes of acid are produced worldwide annually. It is also found naturally in gastric acid, Hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirits of salt or acidum salis. Both names are used, especially in other languages, such as German, Salzsäure, Dutch, Zoutzuur, Swedish, Saltsyra, Turkish, Tuz Ruhu, Polish, kwas solny and Chinese. Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air, the old name muriatic acid has the same origin, and this name is still sometimes used. The name hydrochloric acid was coined by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1814, aqua regia, a mixture consisting of hydrochloric and nitric acids, prepared by dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid, was described in the works of Pseudo-Geber, a 13th-century European alchemist. Other references suggest that the first mention of aqua regia is in Byzantine manuscripts dating to the end of the 13th century, free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, who prepared it by heating salt in clay crucibles. Joseph Priestley of Leeds, England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772, during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, demand for alkaline substances increased. A new industrial process developed by Nicolas Leblanc of Issoundun, France enabled cheap large-scale production of sodium carbonate, in this Leblanc process, common salt is converted to soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, releasing hydrogen chloride as a by-product. Until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legislation in other countries, after the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale. In the 20th century, the Leblanc process was replaced by the Solvay process without a hydrochloric acid by-product. Since hydrochloric acid was already settled as an important chemical in numerous applications. After the year 2000, hydrochloric acid is made by absorbing by-product hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production. Hydrochloric acid is the salt of hydronium ion, H3O+ and chloride and it is usually prepared by treating HCl with water. H C l + H2 O ⟶ H3 O + + C l − Hydrochloric acid can therefore be used to prepare salts called chlorides, Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, since it is completely dissociated in water.
36. Water well – A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age. Wells have been sunk by hand digging as is the case in rural developing areas. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, a more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole, drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at greater depths than dug wells. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided, Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water, hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging, a more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer. Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech as they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations in developing countries and they may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been excavated to 60 metres. They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a pump. The water is coming from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes, drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous.
37. Spring (hydrology) – A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to the Earths surface. It is a component of the hydrosphere, a spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the Earths surface, becoming part of the area groundwater. The groundwater then travels through a network of cracks and fissure—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, the water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of a karst spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of an aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells and this is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening. Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation, still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature such as a hot spring, the action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the water has filtered through permeable earth. Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, tubular springs, in which the water flows from underground caverns. Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the springs recharge basin, factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed, grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas, human activity may also affect a springs discharge--withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge, the largest springs are called first-magnitude, defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet of water per second. The scale for spring flow is as follows, Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks and this may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is bottled and sold as mineral water. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called mineral springs, Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called soda springs.
38. Algae – Algae is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to forms, such as the giant kelp. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem. No definition of algae is generally accepted, one definition is that algae have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells. Some authors exclude all prokaryotes thus do not consider cyanobacteria as algae, Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes. Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago, the singular alga is the Latin word for seaweed and retains that meaning in English. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, be cold, a more likely source is alliga, binding, entwining. The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος, which could mean either the seaweed or a red dye derived from it, the Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. It could be any color, black, red, green, accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa, most algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, however, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right, many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic.
39. Parts per million – In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e. g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement, commonly used are ppm, ppb, ppt and ppq. Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water. Consequently,1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L, similarly, parts-per notation is used also in physics and engineering to express the value of various proportional phenomena. For instance, a metal alloy might expand 1.2 micrometers per meter of length for every degree Celsius. For instance, the accuracy of distance measurements when using a laser rangefinder might be 1 millimeter per kilometer of distance, this could be expressed as “Accuracy =1 ppm. ”Parts-per notations are all dimensionless quantities, in mathematical expressions. In fractions like “2 nanometers per meter” so the quotients are pure-number coefficients with positive values less than 1, when parts-per notations, including the percent symbol, are used in regular prose, they are still pure-number dimensionless quantities. However, they take the literal “parts per” meaning of a comparative ratio. Parts-per notations may be expressed in terms of any unit of the same measure, in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemical shift is usually expressed in ppm. It represents the difference of a frequency in parts per million from the reference frequency. The reference frequency depends on the magnetic field and the element being measured. It is usually expressed in MHz, typical chemical shifts are rarely more than a few hundred Hz from the reference frequency, so chemical shifts are conveniently expressed in ppm. Parts-per notation gives a quantity that does not depend on the instruments field strength. One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent symbol and denotes one part per 100 parts, one part in 102, and this is equivalent to approximately one drop of water diluted into 5 milliliters or about fifteen minutes out of one day. One part per thousand should generally be spelled out in full and it may also be denoted by the millage symbol. Note however, that specific disciplines such as oceanography, as well as educational exercises, one part per thousand denotes one part per 1000 parts, one part in 103, and a value of 1 × 10−3. This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 milliliters or about one, one part per ten thousand is denoted by the permyriad symbol.
40. Organic compound – An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially.
41. Carcinogenicity – A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages.
42. Developed world – Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2018, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2018, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2018, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2018 and covers the period up to 2017. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2017 report.
43. World Health Organization – The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2017/2018 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building.
44. Chloramine – Chloramines are derivatives of ammonia by substitution of one, two or three hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms, monochloramine, dichloramine, and nitrogen trichloride. The term chloramine also refers to a family of compounds with the formulas R2NCl. Monochloramine is a compound with the formula NH2Cl. It is a colorless liquid at its melting point of −66 °C. The wholesale cost in the world is about 13.80 to 18.41 USD per 500 gms. Chloramine is used as a disinfectant for water because it is less aggressive than chlorine, NH2Cl is commonly used in low concentrations as a secondary disinfectant in municipal water distribution systems as an alternative to chlorination. Chlorine is being displaced by chloramine—to be specific monochloramine—which is much more stable, NH2Cl also has a very much lower, however still present, tendency than free chlorine to convert organic materials into chlorocarbons such as chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. Such compounds have been identified as carcinogens and in 1979 the United States Environmental Protection Agency began regulating their levels in U. S. drinking water, some of the unregulated byproducts may possibly pose greater health risks than the regulated chemicals. In swimming pools, chloramines are formed by the reaction of chlorine with organic substances, such as urine. Chloramines, compared to free chlorine, are less effective as a sanitizer and, if not managed correctly, more irritating to the eyes of swimmers. Chloramines are also responsible for the chlorine smell of swimming pools. Some pool test kits designed for use by homeowners are not able to free chlorine and chloramines. There is also evidence that exposure to chloramine can contribute to problems, including asthma. Respiratory problems related to chloramine exposure are common and prevalent among competitive swimmers, US EPA drinking water quality standards limit chloramine concentration for public water systems to 4 parts per million based on a running annual average of all samples in the distribution system. In order to meet EPA-regulated limits on halogenated disinfection by-products, many utilities are switching from chlorination to chloramination, both iodinated disinfection by-products and N-nitrosodimethylamine have been shown to be genotoxic. NH2Cl is an unstable compound in concentrated form. Pure NH2Cl decomposes violently above −40 °C, gaseous chloroamine at low pressures and low concentrations of chloroamine in aqueous solution are thermally slightly more stable. Chloroamine is readily soluble in water and ether, but less soluble in chloroform, in dilute aqueous solution, chloroamine is prepared by the reaction of ammonia with sodium hypochlorite, NH3 + OCl− ⟶ NH2Cl + HO− This is also the first step of the Raschig hydrazine synthesis.
45. Escherichia coli – Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause food poisoning in their hosts. The harmless strains are part of the flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter, the bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards. E. coli and other facultative anaerobes constitute about 0. 1% of gut flora, cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them potential indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. A growing body of research, though, has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended periods outside of a host, the bacterium can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting, and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. E. coli is a chemoheterotroph whose chemically defined medium must include a source of carbon, under favorable conditions, it takes only 20 minutes to reproduce. E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and nonsporulating bacterium, cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 μm long and 0. 25–1.0 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0. 6–0.7 μm3. E. coli stains Gram-negative because its cell wall is composed of a peptidoglycan layer. During the staining process, E. coli picks up the color of the counterstain safranin, the outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such that E. coli is not damaged by penicillin. Strains that possess flagella are motile, the flagella have a peritrichous arrangement. E. coli can live on a variety of substrates and uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate. Optimum growth of E. coli occurs at 37 °C, and it uses oxygen when it is present and available. It can, however, continue to grow in the absence of oxygen using fermentation or anaerobic respiration, the ability to continue growing in the absence of oxygen is an advantage to bacteria because their survival is increased in environments where water predominates. The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages, the B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA, the D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of E. coli is higher when more nutrients are available, However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA.
46. Bromine – Bromine is a chemical element with symbol Br and atomic number 35. It is the third-lightest halogen, and is a fuming red-brown liquid at room temperature that readily to form a similarly coloured gas. Its properties are intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. Isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Jérôme Balard, its name was derived from the Ancient Greek βρῶμος stench, referencing its sharp and disagreeable smell. Elemental bromine is very reactive and thus does not occur free in nature, while it is rather rare in the Earths crust, the high solubility of the bromide ion has caused its accumulation in the oceans. Commercially the element is easily extracted from brine pools, mostly in the United States, Israel, the mass of bromine in the oceans is about one three-hundredth of that of chlorine. At high temperatures, organobromine compounds readily convert to free bromine atoms and this effect makes organobromine compounds useful as fire retardants and more than half the bromine produced worldwide each year is put to this purpose. Unfortunately, the same property causes sunlight to convert volatile organobromine compounds to free bromine atoms in the atmosphere, as a result, many organobromide compounds—such as the pesticide methyl bromide—are no longer used. Bromine compounds are used in well drilling fluids, in photographic film. Bromine has sometimes been considered to be essential in humans, but with the support of only limited circumstantial evidence. As a pharmaceutical, the bromide ion has inhibitory effects on the central nervous system. They retain niche uses as antiepileptics, bromine was discovered independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Balard, in 1825 and 1826, respectively. Löwig isolated bromine from a water spring from his hometown Bad Kreuznach in 1825. Löwig used a solution of the mineral salt saturated with chlorine, after evaporation of the ether a brown liquid remained. With this liquid as a sample for his work he applied for a position in the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg, the publication of the results was delayed and Balard published his results first. Balard found bromine chemicals in the ash of seaweed from the marshes of Montpellier. The seaweed was used to produce iodine, but also contained bromine, Balard distilled the bromine from a solution of seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. In his publication, Balard states that he changed the name from muride to brôme on the proposal of M. Anglada, brôme derives from the Greek βρωμος.
47. Iodine – Iodine is a chemical element with symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the halogens, it exists as a lustrous. The elemental form was discovered by the French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 and it was named two years later by Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac from this property, after the Greek ἰωδης violet-coloured. Iodine occurs in many states, including iodide, iodate. It is the least abundant of the halogens, being the sixty-first most abundant element. It is even less abundant than the rare earths. It is the heaviest essential element, iodine is found in the thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency affects two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. The dominant producers of today are Chile and Japan. Iodine and its compounds are used in nutrition. Due to its atomic number and ease of attachment to organic compounds. Because of the specificity of its uptake by the human body, iodine is also used as a catalyst in the industrial production of acetic acid and some polymers. In 1811, iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois, at that time of the Napoleonic Wars, saltpeter was in great demand in France. Saltpeter produced from French nitre beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of Normandy, to isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid, Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapour rose. He noted that the vapour crystallised on cold surfaces, making dark crystals, Courtois suspected that this material was a new element but lacked funding to pursue it further. Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes and Nicolas Clément and he also gave some of the substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and to physicist André-Marie Ampère. On 29 November 1813, Desormes and Clément made Courtois discovery public and they described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France.
48. Filtration – Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from fluids by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate, in physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in biological filters particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are retained and removed. However, the separation is not complete, solids will be contaminated with some fluid, Filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems, there are biologic, geologic, and industrial forms. Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid, depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated. Filtration, as an operation is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials of different chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other, by dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds, Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. It may be combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the biofilter. Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer, in sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the holes of the sieve are retained. In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter, oversize particles may form a cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing the filter. Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the size of particles that causes separation. Some adsorption devices containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin are commercially called filters, Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from fluids with magnets, because there is no filter medium. Commercial devices called magnetic filters are sold, but the name reflects their use, the remainder of this article focuses primarily on liquid filtration. There are many different methods of filtration, all aim to attain the separation of substances, separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, methods of filtration vary depending on the location of the targeted material, i. ه. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid. There are several filtration techniques depending on the desired outcome namely, hot, cold, some of the major purposes of getting a desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture. Hot filtration method is used to separate solids from a hot solution. This is done in order to prevent crystal formation in the filter funnel, one of the most important measure to prevent the formation of crystals in the funnel and to undergo effective hot filtration is the use stemless filter funnel.
49. Ultraviolet – Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann.
50. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation – UVGI is used in a variety of applications, such as food, air, and water purification. UV-C light is weak at the Earths surface as the layer of the atmosphere blocks it. UVGI devices can produce strong enough UV-C light in circulating air or water systems to make them inhospitable environments to microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, molds, UVGI can be coupled with a filtration system to sanitize air and water. The application of UVGI to disinfection has been a practice since the mid-20th century. It has been used primarily in medical sanitation and sterile work facilities, increasingly it has been employed to sterilize drinking and wastewater, as the holding facilities are enclosed and can be circulated to ensure a higher exposure to the UV. In recent years UVGI has found renewed application in air purifiers, in 1878, Arthur Downes and Thomas P. Blunt published a paper describing the sterilization of bacteria exposed to short-wavelength light, UV has been a known mutagen at the cellular level for over 100 years. The 1903 Nobel Prize for Medicine was awarded to Niels Finsen for his use of UV against lupus vulgaris, tuberculosis of the skin, using UV light for disinfection of drinking water dates back to 1910 in Marseille, France. The prototype plant was shut down after a time due to poor reliability. In 1955, UV water treatment systems were applied in Austria and Switzerland, by 2001, over 6,000 UV water treatment plants were operating in Europe. Over time, UV costs have declined as researchers develop and use new UV methods to water and wastewater. Currently, several countries have developed regulations that allow systems to disinfect their water supplies with UV light. UV light is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible light, UV can be separated into various ranges, with short-wavelength UV considered germicidal UV. At certain wavelengths, UV is mutagenic to bacteria, viruses, particularly at wavelengths around 260 nm–270 nm, UV breaks molecular bonds within microorganismal DNA, producing thymine dimers that can kill or disable the organisms. Mercury-based lamps emit UV light at the 253.7 nm line, Ultraviolet Light Emitting Diodes lamps emit UV light at selectable wavelengths between 255 and 280 nm. Pulsed-xenon lamps emit UV light across the entire UV spectrum with a peak emission near 230nm and this process is similar to the effect of longer wavelengths producing sunburn in humans. Microorganisms have less protection against UV, and cannot survive prolonged exposure to it, a UVGI system is designed to expose environments such as water tanks, sealed rooms and forced air systems to germicidal UV. Exposure comes from germicidal lamps that emit germicidal UV at the correct wavelength, the forced flow of air or water through this environment ensures exposure.
51. Sterilization (microbiology) – Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including, heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and filtration. Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization in that kills, deactivates, or eliminates all forms of life. Canning of foods is an extension of the principle, and has helped to reduce food borne illness. Other methods of sterilizing foods include food irradiation and high pressure, in general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles and artificial pacemakers and this is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals. Most medical and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are able to go under steam sterilization, however, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and instruments made of materials that require low-temperature sterilization. Ethylene oxide gas has been used since the 1950s for heat-, within the past 15 years, a number of new, low-temperature sterilization systems have been developed and are being used to sterilize medical devices. ]Steam sterilization is the most widely used and the most dependable. Steam sterilization is nontoxic, inexpensive, rapidly microbicidal, sporicidal, there are strict international rules to protect the contamination of Solar System bodies from biological material from Earth. Standards vary depending on both the type of mission and its destination, the more likely a planet is considered to be habitable, the aim of sterilization is the reduction of initially present microorganisms or other potential pathogens. The degree of sterilization is commonly expressed by multiples of the decimal reduction time, or D-value, then the number of microorganisms N after sterilization time t is given by, N N0 =10. The D-value is a function of sterilization conditions and varies with the type of microorganism, temperature, water activity, for steam sterilization typically the temperature is given as index. Theoretically, the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero, to compensate for this, the overkill method is often used. Using the overkill method, sterilization is performed by sterilizing for longer than is required to kill the present on or in the item being sterilized. This provides a sterility assurance level equal to the probability of a non-sterile unit, for high-risk applications such as medical devices and injections, a sterility assurance level of at least 10−6 is required by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter or steam sterilizer, autoclaves use steam heated to 121-134 °C under pressure. To achieve sterility, the article is heated in a chamber by injected steam until the article reaches a time, meantime almost all the air is removed from the chamber, because air is undesired in the moist heat sterilization process. The article is then held at that setpoint for a period of time varies depending on the bioburden present on the article being sterilized. Following sterilization, liquids in a pressurized autoclave must be cooled slowly to avoid boiling over when the pressure is released and this may be achieved by gradually depressurizing the sterilization chamber and allowing liquids to evaporate under a negative pressure, while cooling the contents.
52. Safe Drinking Water Act – The Safe Drinking Water Act is the principal federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency is required to set standards for drinking water quality and oversee all states, localities, the SDWA applies to every public water system in the United States. There are currently about 155,000 public water systems providing water to almost all Americans at some time in their lives, the Act does not cover private wells. The SDWA does not apply to bottled water, bottled water is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The SDWA requires EPA to establish National Primary Drinking Water Regulations for contaminants that may cause adverse health effects. The regulations include both mandatory levels and nonenforceable health goals for each included contaminant, Federal drinking water standards are organized into six groups, Microorganisms Disinfectants Disinfection Byproducts Inorganic Chemicals Organic Chemicals Radionuclides. EPA has issued standards for Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, Legionella, coliform bacteria, EPA also requires two microorganism-related tests to indicate water quality, plate count and turbidity. EPA has issued standards for chlorine, chloramine and chlorine dioxide, EPA has issued standards for bromate, chlorite, haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes. EPA has issued standards for antimony, arsenic, asbestos, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, cyanide, fluoride, lead, mercury, nitrate, nitrite, EPA issued an initial lead and copper regulation in 1991 and last revised the regulation in 2007. Congress tightened the definition of lead free plumbing in a 2018 amendment to the Act, EPA published a white paper in 2018 discussing options for additional revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule. EPA has issued standards for 53 organic compounds, including benzene, dioxin, PCBs, styrene, toluene, vinyl chloride, EPA has issued standards for alpha particles, beta particles and photon emitters, radium and uranium. Future NPDWR standards will apply to non-transient non-community water systems because of concern for the exposure of a stable population. The SDWA requires EPA to identify and list unregulated contaminants which may require regulation, the Agency must publish this list, called the Contaminant Candidate List, every five years. EPA is required to decide whether to regulate at least five or more listed contaminants, EPA uses this list to prioritize research and data collection efforts, which support the regulatory determination process. Public water systems are required to monitor their water for contaminants. Water samples must be analyzed using EPA-approved testing methods, by laboratories that are certified by EPA or a state agency, a PWS must notify its customers when it violates drinking water regulations or is providing drinking water that may pose a health risk. Such notifications are provided immediately, as soon as possible or annually. Community water systems—those systems that serve the people throughout the year—must provide an annual Consumer Confidence Report to customers.
53. Trichloroisocyanuric acid – Trichloroisocyanuric acid is an organic compound with the formula. It is used as an disinfectant, bleaching agent and a reagent in organic synthesis. This white crystalline powder, which has a strong odour, is sometimes sold in tablet or granule form for domestic. Salts of trichloroisocyanuric acid are known as trichloroisocyanurates, the compound is a disinfectant, algicide and bactericide mainly for swimming pools and dyestuffs, and is also used as a bleaching agent in the textile industry. Trichloroisocyanuric acid as used in swimming pools is easier to handle than chlorine and it dissolves slowly in water, but as it reacts, cyanuric acid concentration in the pool will build-up. Dichloroisocyanuric acid Sodium dichloroisocyanurate Symclosene data page MSDS for Trichloroisocyanuric acid Oxidation of primary alcohol to aldehyde.
54. Water filter – A water filter removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical barrier, a chemical process or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to different extents for purposes such as providing agricultural irrigation, accessible drinking water, public and private aquaria, filters use sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges, biological metabolite transfer, and other processes to remove unwanted substances from a quantity of water. And unlike a sieve or screen, a filter can potentially remove particles much smaller than the holes through which its water passes. Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters, slow sand filter beds, rapid sand filters, cloth filters, some filters use more than one filtration method. An example of this is a multi-barrier system, jug filters can be used for small quantities of drinking water. Some kettles have built-in filters, primarily to reduce limescale buildup, flowmatic cartridge style filters are cylinders 10 inches long by 2.5 inches in diameter. They are made by multiple manufactures and are available in 1-50 micron ratings as well as activated carbon, point-of-use microfiltration devices can be directly installed at water outlets in order to protect users against Legionella spp. Nontuberculous mycobacteria, Escherichia coli and other potentially harmful pathogens by providing a barrier to them and/or minimizing patient exposure. Water filters are used by hikers, aid organizations during humanitarian emergencies, dirty water is pumped via a screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a specialized filter, ending up in a container. These filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts that can cause disease, filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic water filters must have their outside abraded when they have become clogged with impurities. These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that disinfect water which remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A, each certifies that home water treatment units meet or exceed National Standard Institute/National Science Foundation and Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards. Certification from these organizations will specify one or both of specific standards. NSF International as it is now known started out as the National Sanitation Foundation in 1944 at the University of Michigan School of Public Health, the NSFs water treatment Device Certification Program requires extensive product testing and unannounced audits of production facilities. As with all filters, follow the instructions for filter use. The term water polishing can refer to any process that removes particulate material. In this sense, water polishing is simply another term for whole house water filtration systems, polishing is also done on a large scale in water reclamation plants. During the 19th and 20th centuries, water filters for domestic water production were divided into slow sand filters. While there were many small-scale water filtration systems prior to 1800, Paisley, the Paisley filter began operation in 1804 and was an early type of slow sand filter.
55. Water fluoridation – Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities, typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in the U. S. costs an average of about $1.04 per person-year. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits, in 2018 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L, depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride. Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels, Dental caries remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear, a Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth. Most European countries have experienced substantial declines in tooth decay without its use, recent studies suggest that water fluoridation, particularly in industrialized nations, may be unnecessary because topical fluorides are widely used, and caries rates have become low. There is no evidence of other adverse effects from water fluoridation. Fluorides effects depend on the daily intake of fluoride from all sources. Drinking water is typically the largest source, other methods of therapy include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt. The views on the most efficient method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed, the Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective way to achieve fluoride exposure that is community-wide. Public water fluoridation was first practiced in the U. S, as of 2018,25 countries have artificial water fluoridation to varying degrees,11 of them have more than 50% of their population drinking fluoridated water. A further 28 countries have water that is naturally fluoridated, though in many of them the fluoride is above the safe level. As of 2018, about 435 million people worldwide received water fluoridated at the recommended level, about 214 million of them living in the United States. Major health organizations such as the World Health Organization and FDI World Dental Federation supported water fluoridation as safe, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists water fluoridation as one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20th century in the U. S. Despite this, the practice is controversial as a health measure, some countries and communities have discontinued it. The goal of water fluoridation is to prevent tooth decay by adjusting the concentration of fluoride in water supplies. Tooth decay is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases worldwide, in the U. S. minorities and the poor both have higher rates of decayed and missing teeth, and their children have less dental care. Once a cavity occurs, the fate is that of repeated restorations.
56. Water industry – The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors of the economy. The water industry includes manufacturers and suppliers of bottled water, Water privatization by companies in the water industry is becoming an issue as water security threatens local communities. The modern water industry operates sophisticated and costly water and wastewater networks and sewage treatment plants and it is generally a natural monopoly, and as a result is usually run as a public service by a public utility which is owned by local or national government. There are a variety of structures for the water industry, with countries usually having one dominant traditional structure. Cooperation and NGO operators Integrated water system - by far the most common Separation by function, other separation water quality standards and environmental standards relating to wastewater are usually set by national bodies. In the UK, the Drinking Water Inspectorate and the Environment Agency, Water Environment Federation - Professional association for ambient water quality research & pollution control The Water Network - Network for the water professionals to share knowledge.
57. Water pollution – Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds, Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels. It has been suggested that pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases. An estimated 580 people in India die of water related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted, as of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the problems of water pollution in developing countries. The head of Chinas national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of Chinas seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause changes in water quality. Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often studied and managed as separate resources. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater, conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two based on their origin. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes, the CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites. Nonpoint source pollution refers to contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area, a common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in storm water from sheet flow over a field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, however, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source.
58. Water purification – Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose, the standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the purpose of water use. Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality, simple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water – considered safe for all purposes in the 19th century – must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment. Chemical and microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification. The WHO estimates that 94% of these cases are preventable through modifications to the environment. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries. Groundwater, The water emerging from deep ground water may have fallen as rain many tens, hundreds. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells, deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological quality, but the water may be rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present including chloride, there may be a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Primary disinfection may also be required, where groundwater recharge is practised, the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applicable state and federal regulations. Bacteria and pathogen levels are low, but some bacteria. Where uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water, many upland sources have low pH which require adjustment. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs, Low land surface waters will have a significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved constituents. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air, desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis. Surface Water, Freshwater bodies that are open to the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater are termed surface waters. The aims of the treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the water, the choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water.
59. Water supply network – A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes to water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes, Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels, tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns, a pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers and other usage points. Connections to the sewers are found downstream of the water consumers. Raw water is collected from a water source or from a groundwater source within the watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards. Water purification usually occurs close to the delivery points to reduce pumping costs. Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps, clarification, filtration and disinfection, clarification refers to the separation of particles from the water stream. Chemical addition destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, while other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the supply through the supply network. The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the quality standards required for human consumption. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network, one network may have several such service reservoirs. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a vessel or even by an underground cistern. This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure and these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise.
60. Water treatment – Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. Substances that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment include suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common practice to keep residual disinfectants in the water to kill bacteriological contamination during distribution. World Health Organization guidelines are a set of standards intended to apply where better local standards are not implemeted. More rigorous standards apply across Europe, the USA and in most other developed countries, followed throughout the world for drinking water quality requirements. Disinfection for killing bacteria viruses and other pathogens, technologies for potable water and other uses are well developed, and generalized designs are available from which treatment processes can be selected for pilot testing on the specific source water. In addition, a number of companies provide patented technological solutions for treatment of specific contaminants. Automation of water and waste-water treatment is common in the developed world, source water quality through the seasons, scale and environmental impact can dictate capital costs and operating costs. End use of the treated water dictates the necessary quality monitoring technologies, biological processes can be employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge or slow sand filters. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure, some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of solids from liquids, by progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced. Two of the processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment. A lack of water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated, scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health. With the proper treatment, a significant proportion of industrial on-site wastewater might be reusable, corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity.
61. Am J Public Health – The American Journal of Public Health is a monthly peer-reviewed public health journal published by the American Public Health Association covering health policy and public health. The journal was established in 1911 and its mission is to advance public health research, policy, practice. The journal occasionally publishes themed supplements, the journal has been criticized for extending its open access embargo from 2 to 10 years as of June 1,2018. The journal was voted one of the 100 most influential journals in biology, according to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2018 impact factor of 4.138. The journal is abstracted and indexed in, Progress in Community Health Partnerships Official website.
62. PubMed Identifier – PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2018, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby.
63. PDF – The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2017, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect.
64. United States Environmental Protection Agency – The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2018, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2018, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states.
65. NIH – The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. >Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001.
66. Wastewater – Wastewater, also written as waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. Wastewater can originate from a combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, municipal wastewater is usually conveyed in a combined sewer or sanitary sewer, and treated at a wastewater treatment plant. Treated wastewater is discharged into receiving water via an effluent pipe, wastewaters generated in areas without access to centralized sewer systems rely on on-site wastewater systems. These typically comprise a septic tank, drain field, and optionally an on-site treatment unit, the management of wastewater belongs to the overarching term sanitation, just like the management of human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. Sewerage is the infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens. Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc. Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc. Macro-solids such as napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, childrens toys, dead animals or plants. Gases such as sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc. Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc. The result is that the content of the water will be decreased. Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the oxygen demand. Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents, both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants. The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by oxidation of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of consumed when the biochemical reaction is allowed to proceed to completion is called the Ultimate BOD. Because the Ultimate BOD is so time consuming, the 5-day BOD has been almost universally adopted as a measure of pollution effect.
67. Acid mine drainage – Acid mine drainage, acid and metalliferous drainage, or acid rock drainage refers to the outflow of acidic water from metal mines or coal mines. Areas where the earth has been disturbed may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic. Historically, the discharges from active or abandoned mines were called acid mine drainage. The term acid rock drainage, or ARD, was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s to indicate that acidic drainage can originate from other than mines. None of these names have gained general acceptance. Sub-surface mining often progresses below the table, so water must be constantly pumped out of the mine in order to prevent flooding. When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the mine and this introduction of water is the initial step in most acid rock drainage situations. Tailings piles or ponds, mine waste dumps, and coal spoils are also an important source of acid mine drainage. After being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulfides within the surrounding rock, colonies of bacteria and archaea greatly accelerate the decomposition of metal ions, although the reactions also occur in an abiotic environment. These microbes, called extremophiles for their ability to survive in conditions, occur naturally in the rock. Special extremophiles known as Acidophiles especially favor the low pH levels of abandoned mines, in particular, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key contributor to pyrite oxidation. Metal mines may generate highly acidic discharges where the ore is a mineral or is associated with pyrite. In these cases the predominant metal ion may not be iron but rather zinc, copper, the most commonly mined ore of copper, chalcopyrite, is itself a copper-iron-sulfide and occurs with a range of other sulfides. Thus, copper mines are often major culprits of acid mine drainage, at some mines, acidic drainage is detected within 2–5 years after mining begins, whereas at other mines, it is not detected for several decades. In addition, acidic drainage may be generated for decades or centuries after it is first detected, for this reason, acid mine drainage is considered a serious long-term environmental problem associated with mining. Although a host of chemical processes contribute to acid mine drainage, water temperatures as high as 47 °C have been measured underground at the Iron Mountain Mine, and the pH can be as low as -3.6. Organisms which cause acid mine drainage can thrive in waters with pH very close to zero, negative pH occurs when water evaporates from already acidic pools thereby increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions.
68. Ballast water discharge and the environment – Ballast water discharges by ships can have a negative impact on the marine environment. Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of materials, including plants, animals, viruses. There are hundreds of organisms carried in ballast water that cause problematic ecological effects outside of their natural range, Ballast tanks are only used in cargo ships there. Ballast water is controlled under the Biosecurity Act 1993 in New Zealand, a form of cholera, Vibrio cholerae, previously reported only in Bangladesh apparently arrived via ballast water in Peru in 1991, killing more than 10,000 people over the following three years. The zebra mussel, which is native to the Caspian and Black Seas, within 10 years it had spread to all of the five neighbouring Great Lakes. The economic cost of introduction has been estimated by the U. S. Fish. Ballast water discharges are believed to be the source of invasive species in U. S. Studies suggest that the economic cost just from introduction of pest mollusks to U. S. aquatic ecosystems is more than $6 billion per year, congress passed the National Invasive Species Act in 1996 in order to regulate ballast water discharges. The Coast Guard issued ballast water regulations in 2018, under the authority of the Clean Water Act, the Environmental Protection Agency published its latest Vessel General Permit in 2018. The permit sets numeric ballast water discharge limits for commercial vessels 79 feet in length or greater, EPA issued a separate permit for smaller commercial vessels in 2017. Among 818 ports in the Pacific region, Singapore alone accounts for an estimated of 26 percent of cross-region species exchange, via targeted ballast management on Singapore and a few other influential ports, cross-region species exchange to/from the Pacific region can be combinatorially reduced. The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballast water management plan including a ballast water record book, guidelines are given for additional measures then the guidelines. The goals of the convention are to minimise damage to the environment by, minimising the uptake of sediments during ballasting. Ballast water exchange while at sea, at least 95 percent of the total ballast water should be exchanged. Environmental issues with shipping GloBallast partnership International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments.
69. Bathroom – A bathroom is a room in the home for personal hygiene activities, generally containing a sink and either a bathtub, a shower, or both. In some countries, the toilet is included in this room, for ease of plumbing, whereas other cultures consider this insanitary, historically, bathing was often a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with sento in Japan. In North American English the word bathroom may be used to any room containing a toilet. The term for the used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world. A full bathroom is generally understood to contain a bath or shower, a toilet, an ensuite bathroom or ensuite shower room is attached to and only accessible from a bedroom. A family bathroom, in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, a Jack and Jill bathroom or connected bathroom is situated between and shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms. A wetroom is a room usually equipped with a shower. In the United States, there is a lack of a single, universal definition, in some U. S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a full bath. In addition, there is the use of the bathroom to describe a room containing a toilet, usually a basin. See that article for further synonyms and euphemisms, bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels. Some bathrooms contain a medicine cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet. The design of a bathroom must account for the use of hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge, ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are often cold to the touch, however, alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface.
Managing e-waste in China: Policies, pilot projects and alternative approaches.
As the largest exporter of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and importer of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE, also called e-waste) around the world, China plays a key role in the global life cycle of electronics. This paper reviews the existing framework for e-waste management in China including regulatory policies and pilot projects. The Chinese government has been active in creating a legislative and institutional framework to realize e-waste recycling. Pilot projects have been established with the intent to test new formal systems to replace informal recycling. These projects have usually failed to collect sufficient e-waste, mainly because informal recyclers pay consumers for their e-waste and pilot projects do not. Challenges to implementing e-waste reuse/recycling systems particular to the Chinese situation are analyzed and two alternative policy approaches are proposed to deal with these challenges. The first policy approach proposed is a system which shares financial responsibility among consumers, manufacturers and the government. The system includes a deposit returned to consumers as an incentive to turn in e-waste. The second proposal is, where appropriate, to include an e-waste channel which mixes informal and formal sectors, with the informal sector handling collection and reuse and the formal sector responsible for dismantling and recycling.
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Principles of the trading system-extended demonstration
CoO is an autonomous commercial policy instrument, directed to promote and sustain mutual trade and to develop economic co-operation among countries. It is based on the most classical commercial policy instrument of all: the tariff.
Vide Public Notic No.59/2009-2017(RE-2018) dated 15th May, 2017, MPEDA is authorized to issue Certificate of Origin for Marine Products under all FTAs/PTAs as mentioned below.
GENERALISED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES (GSP)
2.1.1 The Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) is a non-contractual instrument by which industrially developed countries extend tariff concession to goods originating in developing countries.
2.1.2The declared objectives are to assist developing countries:
ا). In increasing their export earnings:
ب). In promoting their industrialization: and.
ج). In accelerating their rates of economic growth.
2.1.3The principles underlying GSP were formally accepted in March 1968 during the 2nd UNCTAD Conference held at New Delhi.
Traditionally, the GSP has been an autonomous commercial policy instrument, directed towards development. It has been based on the most classical commercial policy instrument of all: the tariff. The objective has been to offer the developing countries a more preferential tariff compared to that given to developed countries in order to enable a more favorable access to the developed market for their exports.
Indian exporters benefit indirectly – through the benefits that accrues to the importer by way of reduced tariff or duty free entry of eligible Indian products.
The generalized schemes of preferences were first put into operation in the year 1971, with the application of the basic principles defined in the generalized system of preferences elaborated within the UNCTAD.
GSP presently comprises of 12 different schemes extended by 36 preference-giving countries.
Presently following organizations have been authorized to issue certificates of origin under GSP.
Offices known as Joint Director General / Deputy.
at Santa Cruz (Bombay), Cochin, Madras, Falta,
Visakhapatnam, Kandla and Noida.
through the Regional Offices all over India.
(Without Physical verification)
GLOBAL SYSTEM OF TRADE PREFERENCES AMONG DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (GSTP)
3.1.1 The Agreement on Global System of Trade Preferences among developing countries (GSTP) was negotiated in the year 1988 by 48 developing countries that were member of Group of 77.
ب. To develop economic co-operation among developing countries (members of Group of 77).
3.2.1 The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of products eligible for preferential concessions under GSTP. Products, which have achieved the status 'originating in India', are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into participant countries.
3.2.2 Following products are considered as originating in India, if they are consigned directly to a participant country.
ا. Products that are wholly obtained in India, as defined at 3.2.4 below.
ب. Products obtained in India in the manufacture of which, in addition to the materials referred to at 4 below and materials originating in participant countries, materials imported from non – participant countries and / or materials of undetermined origin are also used, provided the value of materials imported from non – participant countries and / or materials of undetermined origin does not exceed 50% of the f. o.b. value of the product, subject to condition detailed at 5 below.
3.2.4Within the meaning of 3.2.2 (a) above, the following are considered as wholly obtained in India.
Raw or mineral products extracted from its soil, its water or its seabed; Agricultural products harvested there; Animals born and raised there; Products obtained from animals referred to in clause (c) above; products obtained by hunting or fishing conducted there; Products of sea fishing and other marine products taken from the high seas by its vessels3,4; Products processed and/or made on board its factory ships4,5 exclusively from products referred to in clause (f) above; Used articles collected there, fit only for the recovery of raw materials; Waste and scrap resulting from manufacturing operations conducted there; Goods produced there exclusively from the products referred to in clauses (a) to (i) above. 3.2.5Products which comply with origin requirements provided for at 3.2.2 above and which are used by a participant as input for a finished product eligible for preferential treatment by another participant shall be considered as a product originating in the territory of the participant where working or processing of the finished product has taken place provided that the aggregate content originating in the territory of the participant is not less than 60 per cent of its f. o.b. value6.
ا. If the products are transported without passing through the territory of any non – participant country.
(i)the transit entry is justified for geographical reason or by considerations related exclusively to transport requirements;
Member countries of Group of 77 who negotiated GSTP are as under :
Presently following organizations have been authorized to issue certificate of origin under GSTP.
through the Regional Offices all over India.
(Without Physical verification)
1.Includes mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials as well as mineral or metal ores.
ASIA PACIFIC TRADE AGREEMENT (APTA)
The Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) is a preferential trading arrangement designed to liberalise and expand trade in goods progressively in the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP) region. Agreement so far has been implemented by India, Bangladesh, Republic of Korea, Srilanka & China. Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) is a rename of the Bangkok Agreement (BA) from 1st September 2006. The Bangkok Agreement was effective from 31st July 1975.
4.1.1The declared objectives of APTA are: a. To promote and sustain mutual trade, and.
4.2 Rules of Origin 4.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of products eligible for preferential concessions under APTA. Products, which have achieved the status 'originating in India', are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into participant countries.
(b) Agricultural products2 harvested there;
(c) Animals born and raised there;
(d) Products obtained from animals referred to in clause (c) above;
(e) Products obtained by hunting or fishing conducted there;
(f) Products of sea fishing and other marine products taken from the high seas by its vessels3,4;
(g) Products processed and/or made on board its factory ships4,5 exclusively from products referred to in clause (f) above;
(h) Used articles collected there, fit only for the recovery of raw materials;
(i) Waste and scrap resulting from manufacturing operations conducted there;
(j) Goods produced there exclusively from the products referred to in clauses (a) to (i) above.
(ii)the products have not entered into trade or consumption there; و.
(iii)The products have not undergone any operation there other than unloading and reloading or any operation required to keep them in good condition.
4.2.7When determining the origin of the products, packing forms a whole with the product it contains.
The Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) is a preferential trading arrangement designed to liberalise and expand trade in goods progressively in the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP) region. Agreement so far has been implemented by India, Bangladesh, Republic of Korea, Srilanka & China. Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) is a rename of the Bangkok Agreement (BA) from 1st September 2006. The Bangkok Agreement was effective from 31st July 1975.
4.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of products eligible for preferential concessions under APTA. Products, which have achieved the status 'originating in India', are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into participant countries.
Raw or mineral products1 extracted from its soil, its water or its seabed; Agricultural products2 harvested there; Animals born and raised there; Products obtained from animals referred to in clause (c) above; Products obtained by hunting or fishing conducted there; Products of sea fishing and other marine products taken from the high seas by its vessels3,4; Products processed and/or made on board its factory ships4,5 exclusively from products referred to in clause (f) above; Used articles collected there, fit only for the recovery of raw materials; Waste and scrap resulting from manufacturing operations conducted there; Goods produced there exclusively from the products referred to in clauses (a) to (i) above. 4.2.5 Products which comply with origin requirements provided for at 4.2.2 and which are used by a participant as input for a finished product eligible for preferential treatment by another participant are considered as a product originating in the territory of the participant where working or processing of the finished product has taken place provided that the aggregate content originating in the territory of the participant is not less than 60 per cent of its f. o.b. value6.
through the Regional Offices all over India.
(Without Physical verification)
SAARC PREFERENTIAL TRADING ARRANGEMENT (SAPTA)
5.1.1The Agreement on SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) was negotiated in the year 1993 by the 7 developing countries that were members of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
5.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of products eligible for preferential concessions under SAPTA. Products, which have achieved the status ‘originating in India’, are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into participant countries.
6.0 INDO-SRI LANKA FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (ISFTA)
a) To promote through expansion of trade, the harmonious development of the economic relations between India and Sri Lanka.
b) To provide fair conditions of competition for trade between India and Sri Lanka.
c) To contribute in this way, by the removal of barriers to trade, to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade.
6.1.3 As per the Agreement, Government of Sri Lanka will accord tariff concessions to such Indian products upon their imports into Sri Lanka, except for products grouped in the Negative List of Sri Lanka, provided the products are originating in India and are directly consigned to Sri Lanka.
6.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of goods under the free trade agreement. Products, which have achieved the status ‘originating in India’, are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into Sri Lanka.
(a)Products that are wholly obtained in India, as defined at 6.2.3 below.
(i) That value addition in India is not less than 25% of the f. o.b. value of the product under export, and.
(ii) That aggregate value addition, that is, total value addition in India and Sri Lanka, is not less than 35% of the f. o.b. value of the product under export.
(i)the materials of imported or undetermined origin, used in the manufacture of the product, are subjected to sufficient working or processing in India, as defined at 6.2.4 below, going beyond those described as insufficient working or processing at 6.2.5 below, and.
(a) Raw or mineral products extracted from its soil, its water or its seabed;
6.3.1The first consignment of a particular product of a particular exporter is certified only after Physical Verification that origin criterion / value addition norm prescribed at 6.2 above is actually being met. Continued compliance to prescribed origin criterion / value addition norm is to be assessed on a periodic basis at a frequency of 1 in 20 consignments, for each product. Depending upon the performance observed in the last 1 year, the In-charge of the Regional/Sub regional officer has the discretion to change this frequency for a product of an exporter subject to the condition that physical verification is carried out at least once in a year for each product.
(Without Physical verification)
1.Includes mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials as well as mineral or metal ores.
INDIA AFGHANISTAN PREFERENTIAL TRADE AGREEMENT (IAPTA)
7.1.1A bilateral Preferential Trade Agreement was signed on 6th March 2003 between the Governments of India and Afghanistan. Under this Agreement, while India agreed to grant tariff concessions to 38 commodities (at six – digit level) originating in Afghanistan, 8 Indian commodities (at six – digit level) comprising Black Tea; Ayurvedic & Homeopathic Medicines; Refined Sugar; Cement; Antisera & other Blood Preparations etc., will get duty-free entry into Afghanistan. Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India had also authorised the Marine Products Export Development Authority to issue certificates of origin under IAPTA for marine products.
a) To promote through expansion of trade, the harmonious development of the economic relations between India and Afghanistan.
b) To provide fair conditions of competition for trade between India and Afghanistan.
c) To pay due regard to the principle of reciprocity in the implementation of this agreement.
d) To contribute in this way, by the removal of barriers to trade, to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade.
7.1.3As per the Agreement, Government of Afghanistan will accord tariff concessions to identified Indian products provided the products are originating in India and are directly consigned to Afghanistan.
7.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of goods under the preferential Trade agreement. Products, which have achieved the status ‘originating in India’, are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into Afghanistan.
(a)Products that are wholly obtained in India, as defined at 7.2.3 below.
(i) That value addition in India is not less than 30% of the f. o.b. value of the product under export, and.
(ii) That aggregate value addition, that is, total value addition in India and Afghanistan, is not less than 40% of the f. o.b. value of the product under export.
(i) the materials of imported or undetermined origin, used in the manufacture of the product, are subjected to sufficient working or processing in India, as defined at 7.2.4 below, going beyond those described as insufficient working or processing at 7.2.5 below, and.
(ii) the value of such materials of imported or undetermined origin does not exceed 50% of the f. o.b. value of the product.
(a) Raw or mineral products iii extracted from its soil, its water or its seabed;
(a) Operations to ensure the preservation of products in good condition during transport and storage (ventilation, spreading out, drying, chilling, placing in salt, sulphur dioxide or other aqueous solutions, removal of damaged parts, and like operations).
(i) Changes of packing and breaking up and assembly of consignments,
(ii)simple slicing, cutting and repacking or placing in bottles, flasks, bags, boxes, fixing on cards or boards, etc., and all other simple packing operations.
(a) If the products are transported without passing through the territory of any country other than India and Afghanistan.
(i) The transit entry is justified for geographical reason or by considerations related exclusively to transport requirements;
(Without Physical verification)
8. SOUTH ASIAN FREE TRADE AREA (SAFTA)
8.1.1The Agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area was signed in between the Governments of SAARC Member States comprising the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, the Kingdom of Bhutan, the Republic of India, the Republic of Maldives, the Kingdom of Nepal, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
8.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of products eligible for preferential.
Products not wholly produced or obtained shall be subject to Rule 8.2.5 and any of the conditions prescribed under Rule 8.2.4.1, Rule 8.2.4.2 or Rule 8.2.8.
a) Raw or mineral products extracted from its soil, its water or its sea bed extending upto its seabed or continental shelf;
b) Agriculture, vegetable and forestry products harvested there;
c) Animals born and raised there;
d) Products obtained from animals referred to in clause (c) above;
e) Products obtained by hunting of fishing conducted there,
f) Products of sea fishing and other marine products from the high seas by its vessels;
g) Products processed and /or made on board its factory ships exclusively from products referred to in clause (f) above;
h) Raw materials recovered from used articles collected there;
i) Waste and scrap resulting from manufacturing operations conducted there;
j) Products taken from the seabed, ocean floor or subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, provided it has the exclusive rights to exploit that sea bed, ocean floor or subsoil thereof;
k) Goods produced there exclusively from the products referred to in clauses (a) to (j) above.
(i)The final product is classified in a heading at the four digit level of the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System differently from those in which all the non-originating materials used in its manufacture are classified and.
(b)Notwithstanding the condition laid down in paragraph (a) & (b) of this Rule, the products listed in the products specific rule shall be eligible for preferential treatment if they comply with Rule 8.2.4.1 (a) or they fulfill the condition corresponding to those products as mentioned in the Product Specific Rule.
Unless otherwise provided for, products worked on or processed in a Contracting State using the inputs originating in any Contracting States within the meaning of Rule 8.2.2 shall be eligible for preferential treatment provided that.
(a) The aggregate content (value of such inputs plus domestic value addition in further manufacture) is not less than 50 percent of the FOB value;
(b)the domestic value content (value of inputs originating in the exporting contracting state plus domestic value addition in further manufacture in the exporting Contracting State), is not less than 20 percent of the FOB value; و.
(c) The final product satisfies the condition of.
(i) Change in classification at the four digit level (CTH) as provided under Rule 8 2.4.1(a) (i); أو.
(ii) Change in classification at the six-digit level (CTSH) as agreed upon in the Product Specific Rules reflected in Rule 8.2.4.1 (a).
The following shall in any event be considered as insufficient working or processing to confer the status of originating products, whether or not there is a change of heading:
1) operations to ensure the preservation of products in good condition during transport and storage (ventilation, spreading out, drying, chilling placing in salt, Sulphur dioxide or other aqueous solutions, removal of damaged parts, and like operations).
a) participant country.
i. The transit entry is justified for geographical reason or by considerations related exclusively to transport requirements;
ثانيا. The products have not entered into trade consumptions there; و.
ثالثا. The products have not undergone any or any operation there other than unloading and reloading operation required keeping them in good condition.
The first consignment of a particular product of a particular exporter is certified only after Physical Verification that origin criterion / value addition norm prescribed at 8.2 above is actually being met. Continued compliance to prescribed origin criterion / value addition norm is to be assessed on a periodic basis at a frequency of 1 in 20 consignments, for each product. Depending upon the performance observed in the last one year, the In - charge of the Agency has the discretion to change this frequency for a product of an exporter subject to the condition that physical verification is carried out at least once in a year for each product.
Physical verification has been prescribed primarily for ensuring that origin criteria / value addition norms are actually being met before a certificate is issued for a particular product.
The CoO shall be obtained at the time of exportation or within three working days from the date of shipment.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its regional/Sub Regional offices are authorized for issue of certificates of origin under SAFTA.
(i)Includes minerals fuels, lubricants and related materials as well as mineral or metals ores.
CECA BETWEEN INDIA & SINGAPORE.
India & Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement came into effect from 1st August 2005. It is a bilateral agreement between Indian and Singapore.
(a) To promote through expansion of trade, the harmonious development of economic relations between India and Singapore.
9.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of goods under CECA. Products which have achieved the status of originating in India, are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into Singapore.
(a)Products that are wholly obtained in India as defined in Rule 9.2.3,
Products not wholly produced or obtained shall be subject to Rule 9.2.4.
(a) Raw or mineral products extracted from its soil, its water or its sea bed extending upto its seabed or continental shelf;
The following shall in any event be considered as insufficient working or processing to confer the status of originating products, whether or not there is a change of heading:
(ii)simple slicing, cutting and repacking or placing in bottles, flasks, bags, boxes, fixing on cards or boards, etc., and all other simple packing operations.
9.2.6.1A product manufactured in one party used in territory of other party as material for the finished product shall be considered as originating in territory of latter party provided that.
(a)it complies with the origin requirements provided for in rule 9. 2.3 or 9.2.4 ; و.
(b) Fulfils the criteria in rule 9.2.5 and ;
ا. Participant country.
i. the transit entry is justified for geographical reason or by considerations related exclusively to transport requirements;
ثانيا. The products have not entered into trade consumptions there ; و.
ثالثا. The products have not undergone any or any operation there other than unloading and reloading operation required to keep them in good condition.
The first consignment of a particular product of a particular exporter is certified only after Physical Verification that origin criterion / value addition norm prescribed at 9.2 above is actually being met. Continued compliance to prescribed origin criterion / value addition norm is to be assessed on a periodic basis at a frequency of 1 in 20 consignments, for each product. Depending upon the performance observed in the last one year, the In - charge of the Agency has the discretion to change this frequency for a product of an exporter subject to the condition that physical verification is carried out at least once in a year for each product.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its Regional/Sub Regional offices are authorized for issue of certificates of origin under CECA.
(Without Physical verification)
i. Includes minerals fuels, lubricants and related materials as well as mineral or metals ores.
EARLY HARVEST SCHEME UNDER INDO-THAILAND FRAMEWORK AGREEMENT (ESH-ITFA)
A framework Agreement for establishing Free Trade Area between India and Thailand was signed on 9.10.2003. Under the agreement an Early Harvest Scheme, containing common agreed list of items for tariff reduction/elimination, was implemented with effect from 1.9.2004.
a)To promote through expansion of trade, the harmonious development of economic relations between India and Thailand.
b) To provide favorable conditions of competition of trade between India and Thailand.
c) To contribute in this way by the removal of barriers to trade, to harmonies development and expansion of world trade.
10.2.1The objective of these rules is to determine the origin of goods under EHS India - Thailand. Products which have achieved the status of originating in India are eligible for preferential tariff treatment upon imports into Thailand.
(a) Products that are wholly obtained or produced in India, as defined in 10 .2.3.
(b) Not wholly produced or obtained.
Products not wholly produced or obtained shall be subject to Rule 10.2.4 or of 10.2.6, and 10.2.5.
a) Raw or mineral products extracted from its soil, its water or its sea bed extending up to its seabed or continental shelf;
b) Agriculture, vegetable and forestry products harvested there;
c) Animals born and raised there;
d) Products obtained from animals referred to in clause (c) above;
e) Products obtained by hunting of fishing conducted there,
f) Products of sea fishing and other marine products from the high seas by its vessels;
g) Products processed and /or made on board its factory ships exclusively from products referred to in clause (f) above;
h) Raw materials recovered from used articles collected there;
i) Waste and scrap resulting from manufacturing operations conducted there;
j) Products taken from the seabed, ocean floor or subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, provided it has the exclusive rights to exploit that sea bed, ocean floor or subsoil thereof;
k) Goods produced there exclusively from the products referred to in clauses (a) to (j) above.
(i) Local value added content criterion;
(i)local value added content of 40% meaning thereby that the total value of materials originating from the countries other than the Parties or of undetermined origin (that is non-originating materials) used does not exceed 60% of the FOB value of the product so produced or obtained; و.
The following shall in any event be considered as insufficient working or processing to confer the status of originating products, whether or not there is a change of heading:
1.operations to ensure the preservation of products in good condition during transport and storage (ventilation, spreading out, drying, chilling placing in salt, Sulphur dioxide or other aqueous solutions, removal of damaged parts, and like operations).
(ii) Simple slicing, cutting and repacking or placing in bottles, flasks, bags, boxes,
(iii). Fixing on cards or boards, etc., and all other simple packing operations.
ا. If the products are transported without passing through territory of non participant country.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its field offices are authorised for issue of certificates of origin under INDO-THAILAND Free Trade Agreement.
(Without Physical verification)
i. Includes minerals fuels, lubricants and related materials as well as mineral or metals ores.
India-MERCOSUR Preferential Trade Agreement (IMPTA)
India and Mercosure (Trading bloc of Brazil, Argetina, Urguay and Paraguay) signed a Preferential Trade agreement (PTA) in New Delhi on January 25 2004. Annexes to this agreement were signed and incorporated to it on March 19, 2005. This agreement came into effect from June 1, 2009.
The aim of this Preferential Trade Agreement is to expand and strengthen the existing relations between MERCOSUR and India and promote the expansion of trade by granting reciprocal fixed tariff preferences with the ultimate objective of creating a free trade area between the parties.
3.1The India-MERCOSUR PTA provides for five Annexes. The five finalized Annexes are as under.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its field offices are authorised to issue of certificates of origin under India-Mercosur Preferential Trade Agreement.
12. India – Korea CEPA.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its field offices are authorised for issue of certificates of origin under India-Mercosur Preferential Trade Agreement.
ASEAN – India Free Trade Agreement.
Export Inspection Council of India, through its field organizations, the Export Inspection Agencies, and The Marine Products Export Development Authority., through its field offices are authorised for issue of certificates of origin under ASEAN – India Free Trade Agreement.
INDIA – MALAYSIA COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COOPERATION AGREEMENT (IMCECA)
The text of CECA is available at: commerce. nic. in/trade/IMCECA/title. pdf.
Rules of origin are contained in Chapter 3 of the CECA. The operational certification procedures are detailed in Annex 3-3 and the Product Specific Rules are detailed at Annex 3-1.
INDIA – JAPAN COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT (IJCEPA)
The text of CEPA is available at http:/eicindia/eic/pdf/IJCEPA Basic Agreement. pdf.
Rules of origin are contained in Chapter 3 (page 30) of the CEPA. The operational certification procedures are detailed in Annex-3 (page 874) and the Product Specific Rules are detailed at Annex-2 (page 836). The list of goods eligible for preferential tariff treatment in Japan is on page 719.
ON PRE EXPORTATION VERIFICATION.
20.2.5Instances involving physical verification may be dealt with in the following matter:-
PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING CERTIFICATES OF ORIGIN FROM MPEDA.
13.3.1To the extent possible, CoO forms are processed on first-come-first-served basis.
13.8.1 In order to facilitate speedy redressal of genuine grievances and complaints of the exporters pertaining to issue of certificates of origin, authorities detailed below may be approached.
delivery of certificate.
Forms under Preferential Trade Agreement comprising of Certificate of Origin - two copies and Sworn Declaration - two copies.
1.The certificate must not contain erasures or words written over one another. Any alterations must be made by deleting the incorrect particulars and adding any necessary corrections. Any such alteration must be initiated by the person who completed the certificate and endorsed by the competent governmental authority of the issuing country.
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